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Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  Institut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 

1980 


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Technical  Notes  /  Notes  techniques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best 
original  copy  available  for  filming.  Physical 
features  of  this  copy  which  may  alter  any  of  the 
images  in  the  reproduction  are  checked  below. 


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Coloured  covers/ 
Couvertures  de  couleur 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire 
qu'll  iui  a  6td  possible  de  se  procurer.  Certains 
ddfauts  susceptibles  de  nuire  d  la  quality  de  la 
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Pages  de  couleur 


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Coloured  riiaps/ 

Cartes  gdographiques  en  couleur 


Coloured  plates/ 
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Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  ddcolordes,  tachetdes  ou  piqudes 


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distortion  along  interior  margin// 
Reliure  serrd  (peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou 
de  la  distortion  le  long  de  la  marge 
intdrieure) 


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Transparence 


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Pages  endommag^es 


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Additional  comments/ 
Commentaires  suppl^mentaires 


Fold-out  maps,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at  a  different  reduction  ratio  than  the 
rest  of  the  book. 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata  slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been 
refilmed  to  ensure  the  best  possible  image. 


Bibliographic  Notes  /  Notes  bibliographiques 


D 
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Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 


Bound  with  other  material/ 
Reli6  avec  d'autres  documents 


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Pages  missing/ 
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Commentaires  suppl6mentaires 


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The  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
oi  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche  shall 
contain  the  symbol  —^(meaning  CONTINUED"), 
or  the  symbol  V  (meaning  "END"),  whichever 
applies. 


Les  images  suivantes  ont  6t6  reproduites  avec  te 
plus  grand  soin,  compte  tenu  de  I&  condition  et 
de  la  nettetd  de  I'exemplaire  filmd,  et  en 
conformity  avec  las  conditions  du  contrat  de 
filmage. 

Un  de»  symboles  ^uivants  apparaTtra  sur  la  der- 
nidre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le  cas: 
le  symbole  — ^  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le  symbole 
V  signifie  "FIN". 


The  original  copy  was  borrowed  from,  and 
filmed  with,  the  kind  consent  of  the  following 
institution: 

Library  of  the  Public 

Archives  of  Canada 

Maps  or  plates  too  large  to  be  entirely  included 
in  one  exposure  are  filmed  beginning  in  the 
upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to  right  and  top  to 
bottom,  as  many  frames  as  required.  The 
following  diagrams  illustrate  the  method: 


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La  bibliothdque  des  Archives 

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INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE 


IN 


WORTH  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA: 


SHOWING  THE 


YAlilED   CLIMATIC   INFLUENCES 


OPERATING  IN  THE 


EQUATORIAL,  TROPICAL,  SUB-TROPICAL,  TEMPERATE, 
COLD  AND  FRIGID  REGIONS, 


EXTENDING   FKOM   THE 


ARCTIC  TO  THE  ANTARCTIC  CIRCLE. 


ACCOMPANIED  BY  AN 


AGRICULTUIIAL,  AXD  ISOTHEMAL  MAP  OF  XORin  AMERICA. 


■m 


COMPILED   BY 

J.    DISTURNELL, 

AUinOU  OF  »  INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE,  RELATING  TO  THE  WOULD,"  EXa 


NEW    YORK: 

PUBLISHED    BY   D.  VAN    NOSTRAND, 

No.    193    BROADWAY. 

AND  FOR  SALE   BY   BOOKSELLERS  GENERALLY. 

1867. 


tfsm 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Coiigrcsa,  in  the  year  1867,  by 

J.    D  ^  S  T  U  n  N  K  L  L , 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United   States  for   the  Southern 

District  of  New  York. 


//7 


5 

^ 


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il 


m\ 


Stereotyped  by  Smith  &  McBol-gal,  82  nnd  84  Bcckinan  St.,  N.  Y. 
Printed  by  John  J.  Ef.kd,  43  Center  St. 


■  H  ll—HtlWI 


TO 


PETER    COOPEB    ESQ. 


My  Dear  Siii : — 

By  your  miimjicent  endoicment  of  "  The  Cooper  Union  for 
THE  Advancement  of  Science  and  Art,"  in  the  City  of  New 
York,  you  have  coif  erred  on  the  risincj  and  future  generations 
one  of  the  most  'princely  gifts  that  has  ever  been  hestoived  on  the 
American  puMic.  Oiving  to  this  consideration,  and  the  liberal 
manner  in  which  you  f-^d  the  Trustees  of  the  Cooper  Union  have 
favored  the  Instituti,  .i  icith  which  I  am  connected,  and  in 
grateful  remendyrance  j  ,ie  personal  Jcindness  I  have  uniformly 
received  at  your  hands,  allow  me  to  dedicate  this  Volume  to  you. 
With  feelings  of  great  regard,  I  remain, 

Your  Obedient  Servant, 

JOHN    DISTUENELL. 

KooMS  OK  TiiK  '-Association  fou  tiik  Advan'ce-  \ 

MKNT  OF  SCIENOK,  AND  ART,"  CoOrEU  INSTITUTE,  > 

New  Youk,  Jamuinj,  1867.  ' 


li    1   : 


SB 


ILLUSTllATIOX    AND    MAPS. 


Frontispiece — Illustratiug  the  Climatic  Influence  and  Topography  of  North 

America. 


Agricultural  Map  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  —  Showing  the 
Limit  of  Wheat,  Indian  C'orn,  Grass,  Rico,  and  Sugar. 


Isothermal  Map — Showing  the  Division  of  the   Frigid,  Cold,  Temperate, 
Sub-Tropical,  and  Tropical  Regions  in  North  America. 


CONTENTS. 


VMH 

Intbopuction ix-xii 

Climate — Atmosphere — Zones,  or  Belts  of  Temperature xiv-  xv 

Isothermal  T jnes  and  Climatic  Zones xvi 

Natural  Influences  that  Produce  Rain,  etc xvii 

Annual  Mean  Temperature  I'rom  the  Equator  to  the  Arctic  Circle. . . ,  xviii 

PART  I. 

Climatk  of  North  America 19-23 

Botanj-— "Wheat,  etc 23-24 

Mountain  and  River  Systems 25-27 

(jfreat  River  Basins  and  Valleys — Mountain  Peaks 28-29 

PART  n. 

Arctic  Lands  and  Oceans 30-33 

The  Magnetic  Pole 83 

Appearance  of  the  Sun  from  the  North  Pole 34 

Climate  of  Greenland 35-36 

Temperature  v,ithin  the  Arctic  Circle , 37 

Summer  and  Winter  Temperatures 38 

Temperature  of  the  Arctic  Sea 39 

PART  in. 

The  Cold  Zone  op  America 40 

Russian  America — Sitka,  or  New  Archangel 41-43 

British  America 43-44 

Hudson  Bay — Monthly  and  Yearly  Mean  Temperature 45 

York  Factory — York  Factory  to  Norway  House 4G-48 

Norway  House — Fort  Alexander 49 

Climate  of  a  Portion  of  British  America 50-51 

Observations  on  the  Temjjerature  of  the  Air — Lake  Winnipeg 53 

Seasons  in  the  Valley  of  Lake  Winnipeg 53 

Prevailing  Winds  in  the  Northwest  Territory 54 

Passes  over  the  Rocky  Mountains 55 

Climate  of  the  Valley  ot  the  Red  River  of  the  North 56 

Temperature.  Rain,  etc.,  of  the  Red  River  Settlement 57 

Lake  of  the  Woods— Rainy  Lake « 58-59 

Climate  of  liabrador CO-Gl 

Icebergs— Straits  of  Belle  Isle C2-G3 

Climate  of  Newfoundland 64-65 

Meteorologichl  Table,  showing  the  Situation,  etc.,  of  Cities  and  Posts 

in  British  and  Russian  America G6 

PART  IV. 

Climatic  Division  of  Canada 67-68 

Brief  Outline  of  Canada — Agricultural  Products 69 

Climate  of  Canada,  as  Described  by  the  Early  French  Authors 70-74 


■'i 


'\ 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


PAOR 

Mean  Tonipcraturo  of  Montreal  and  Quebec 75 

Canada  as  It  Is,  in  a  Climatic  and  Agricultural  Point  of  View 70-77 

Climate  of  Canada,  New  Brunswiclt,  and  Nova  Scotia 78-79 

Indian  Summer — Climatic  Observations  nciar  Montreal 80-81 

Monthly  Mean  Temperature  at  Quebec — Health  Statistics 82 

Comparative  Tables  of  Temperature 83 

Agricultural  Products  of  Canada 84 

Meteorological  Results  at  Toronto 85-87 

Climate  of  Vancouver's  Island 88-80 

PART  V. 

(}reat  Laki;s,  on  Int-ai,d  Seas— Temperature,  etc 90-91 

Lakes  Superior — Huron — Michigan — Erie — Ontario 92 

Lake  Region  of  North  America — Comparative  Fall  of  Hain — Extent 

of  the  (Jreat  Lakes 93-94 

Waters  of  Lake  Superior 95-97 

Ilemarkablo  Phenomenon — Auroras — Mirage 98 

Agricultural  Produ<;t8  of  the  Lake  Superior  licgion 99-100 

PART  VI. 

FOKESTS  AND  PrAIRIES  OF  NORTII  AMERICA 101-103 

Prairie  Region 104 

Vegetable  Kinp'dom  of  America 1 0.5-108 

Northwestern  States — Healthy  and  Fruitful  Region 109-111 

Ck'ography  of  Consumption — Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System. . . .  112-1 13 

Meteorological  Observations  at  Forts  Laramie  and  Benton 114 

PART  VII. 

Climatic  Boundary  (;f  the  United  States 115-116 

Population,  Health,  and  Agricultural  Products 117-118 

Habits  and  Character,  as  luflueuced  by  Climate 119-120 

Agricultural  Products,  Area,  etc.,  of  the  U.  S. — Climatic  Divisions. . .  121-123 

Comparative  Agricultural  Statistics  of  tha  United  States 124 

Indian  Corn — Wheat — Quantity  Produced  in  1800 125 

Deaths  in  the  United  States  in  1800 120-127 

Rain  in  the  United  States 128 

Changes  in  the  Climate  of  the  United  States 129-131 

Meteorological  Table,  Showing  the  Cities  and  Posts  having  a  Mean 

Annual  Temperature  bet'.vcen  37 "  and  47"  Fahr. . . . , 132 

PART  VIII. 

Military  Posts  and  Cities  on  tub  Northern  Frontier— Cli- 
matic Features 133 

Fort  Kent— Fort  Sullivan— Plattsburgh  Barracks 134-135 

Madison  Barracks — Fort  Niagara — Detroit  Barracks — Fort  Mackinac.  136 

Fort  Brady— Fort  Snelling— Fort  Ripley 137-138 

Fort  Randall — Meteorology — Diseases  and  Death 139-140 

Meteorological  Table — Climatic  Features^ 141-142 

Military  Posts— West  Point,  N.  Y 143 

Fort  Laramie — Camp  Scott,  or  Bridger's  Fort 144r-145 

Fort  Steilacoom,  Washington  Territory 140 

Fort  Dalles — Astoria,  Oregon 147 

Fort  Cascades,  Washington  Territory 148 

Ascent  of  Mount  Hood 149 

Meteorological  Table — Climatic  Features 150-151 

Military  Posts — Fort  Monroe — JelTcrson  Barracks 153 


CONTENTS. 


vu 


\  I 


PAOR 

St.  Louis — Fnrt  Li'avenwortb 103 

Fort  Scott — Benocia,  Ciilifornia 154 

Fort  Jones,  Ciilifornia ir).5-ir)(5 

Fort  Ut\'\(lin_!Jf — Monterey,  Caliibrnia 157-15H 

Mcteorolo£^ical  Table lOI) 

('llmatic  Features— Military  Posts— Charleston,  S.  C lG0-ir.:3 

St.  Augustine,  Florida lG;t 

New  Orleans,  Louisiana — Yellow  Fever Ifil-lO"* 

Fort  Yuma— Han  Diego.  California 1(1(5-107 

Annual  Measurement  of  Rain  at  tlio  Different  Military  Stations 108-170 

Sickness  and  Mortality  in  the  United  States  Army 171 

PART  IX. 

Cliwate  of  the  Noutheun,  Middle,  and  Western  States 178 

New  Enj^land — Topography — Productions,  etc 173-175 

Meteorological  Observations  in  the  State  of  New  York 17(5 

Climate  of  the  State  of  New  York 177-178 

Opening  and  Closing  of  the  Hudson  Kiver 17!) 

Climate  of  Buffido,  N.  Y 180 

Climate  of  the  Middle  States 181 

Climate  of  the  Western  States 182-18;{ 

Ohio — Its  Climate  and  Productions 184 

Meteorological  Observations — Hapid  Growth  in  Population,  etc 185 

Climate  of  the  Northwestern  States  and  Territories 180-187 

Table,  Showing  the  Temperature  of  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin 13H 

Minnesota — Its  Situation,  Climate,  and  Productions 189-19^ 

Adaptation  of  Climate  to  Agriculture 194 

PAET  X. 

('ltmate  op  the  Southern  States— Northern  Section 195 

Climate  of  West  Virginia,  Altitude,  etc 190-197 

Kentucky  and  Tennessee 198 

Cultivation  of  Tobacco — Limit  of  Cotton  CJ rowing 199 

(ylimato  of  the  Cotton-growing  States 200 

Cotton  Culture— Rice  Culture 201-204 

Climate  of  Florida,  its  Productions,  etc 205-200 

Climate  (<f  the  Southern  States — Temperature,  etc 207 

Mont'  ly  Temperatures  from  Florida  to  Maine,  etc 208-209 

Climate  of  the  Southwestern  States 310-21 1 

The  Northers  that  Prevail  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 212-21:! 

Arizona  and  New  Mexico 214 

PAET  XI. 

Climate  op  the  Pacific  States— California 215-210 

Southern  California— Fort  Yuma — Colorado  Desert 217-218 

Agriculture  of  California-rFruiL  Culture 219-2?0 

Climate  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  States  Compared 221-222 

Sear  )ns  in  California — Mean  Temperature 223-224 

Sierra  N e vada — Sacramento  City 225 

Oregon  an<l  \A'ashington  Territories 220-227 

Scenery  and  Climate  of  Washington  Territory 228-230 

Pacific  Coast — Washington  Territory 2;{1 

Idaho  Territory— Its  Wealth,  etc 232 

Rocky  Mountains— ('limate,  Cnow,  etc 233-234 

Agricultural  and  Gracing  Capabilities 235 

Northern  Pacific  Railroad  Route— Climate,  etc 230-237 

Meteorological  Abstract  for  Esquimault,  Vancouver's  Island 238 


CONTENTS. 


PAET  xn. 

TAOB 

Mexico  and  Centkal  America— Climate,  Topography,  etc 239-242 

Valley  of  Mexico— Climate,  etc 243-244 

Central  America — Climate,  etc 245 

Costa  Rica — Hondurus — Meteorological  Obsor^atioDS 246 

Ilivas,  Nicaragua — Temperature  and  Rain 247 

Belize — Tliermometrical  Observations 248 

Agricultural  Productions — Mountains,  etc 249 

Guatemala— Istlimus  of  Panama 2f)0 

Fall  of  Rain  at  Aspinwall,  New  Granada 251 

Yellow  Fever  and  Rainy  Weather — Temp,  of  the  Air  and  Ocean 252 

Temperature  of  Tropical  America — Climate  of  Caraccas 253 

PART  xin. 

Antilles,  or  West  India  Islands 254 

riimate— Health,  Winds,  etc 253-257 

Island  of  Cuba — Its  Climate,  etc 258 

A^rriculturcl  Products  of  Cuba — Sugar-cane 25';)--2G0 

Coffee — Rico — Tobacco — Indian  Corn 261 

Vegetables — Banana,  or  Plaintain 362 

Diseases  in  Cuba — Yellow  Fever  in  Havana 263 

Island  of  Porto  Rico — Diseases,  etc 264 

Humboldt  on  the  Climate  of  Cuba : 265-269 

Mean  of  Observations  at  Havana  and  Cumam'i 270 

Fall  of  Rain  in  Havana , 271 

Climate  of  the  Bahamas 272 

Climate  of  Bermuda— Gulf  Stream 273-275 

Climate  of  Hayti— Island  of  Jamaica 276 

TAJXT  XIV. 

Climate  of  SouTn  America 277-278 

Climatic  Boundary P79-280 

Climate  of  Costa  Rica — Isthmus  of  Panama 281 

Climate  and  Physical  Features  of  New  G varada 282 

Climate,  Productions,  etc.,  of  Venezuela 283 

Climate  and  Surface  of  Guiana 284 

Climate  and  I'opography  of  Brazil 285-287 

Botany  of  Brazil— Vegetation,  etc 288-200 

Agricultural  Productions 291-293 

Agassiz's  Lecture  on  the  Amazon  River,  Climate,  etc 294r-306 

Climate  and  Physical  Features  of  Ecuador 307-809 

Climate,  etr-.,  of  Bolivia 310 

Peru — ItB  Climate  and  Surface 811 

Climate  and  Pxoductions  of  Paraguay 312-S13 

Pampas  and  Llanos  of  South  America 314 

PART  XV. 

Temperate  and  Cold  Zones  of  South  America— Buenos  Ayres, 

or  the  Argentine  Confederation 315-316 

Climate  and  Productions  of  Chili 317-318 

Mountain  System  of  the  Andes 319-320 

Cruise  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan 321-322 

Ascent  to  the  Peak  of  Orizaba,  Mexico 823-326 

Antarctic  Ocean  ".nd  Continent — Conclusion 837-328 

Index 339-834 


II 


INTRODUCTION. 


Climate,  the  most  important  and  least  understood  of  all  the 
physical  elements,  has  bee-i  most  strangely  neglected  by  the 
scientific  writers  of  the  New  World.  This  can  only  be  reason- 
ably accounted  for  fi'om  the  fact  that  the  meteorological  obser- 
vations on  the  American  Continent  have,  until  recently,  been 
confined  to  a  few  miHtary  stations  and  trading  posts,  extending 
ovor  a  wide  range  of  country. 

The  early  French  discoverers  in  North  America  have  left  on 
record  valuable  observatioiis  in  Lower  Canada,  commencing 
with  Jacques  Cartier,  during  the  "winter  of  1535-3G,  which  he 
spent  near  the  month  of  the  river  St.  Charles,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  present  site  of  Quebec.  These  observations  were  con- 
tinued by  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  with  more  or  less  regularity,  for 
a  long  period  in  the  ancient  capital  of  the  French  possessions. 

The  employees  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  in  connection 
with  researches  of  the  English  navigators  in  the  nortlicrn  por- 
tion of  the  continent,  have,  also,  added  much  valuable  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  of  Chmate — all  going  to  show  a  gi'eat 
increase  of  cold  on  the  same  parallels  of  latitude  in  Northeast- 
ern America,  from  that  which  exist  in  Northwestern  Europe. 

Monthly  records  of  the  weather  have  been  compiled  and 
published  by  a  careful  observer  in  Philadelphia  [Charles 
PeirceJ,  conmiencing  in  1790,  and  running  through  a  period  of 
fift^'-seven  years,  furnishing  much  valuable  information  in 
regard  to  climate,  during  the  difterent  seasons  of  the  year. 
For  the  above  period  to  the  present  date,  there  has  been  a 
gradual  increase  of  hoat,  as  sliowni  by  the  mean  annual  tem- 
peratures, which  may  bo  ascribed  to  the  clearing  of  the  land, 
and  the  mild  winters  of  late  years. 

Previous  to  the  year  1818,  however,  we  possess  no  record  of 
meteorological  observations,  taken  in  the  United  States,  on  a 
rehablo  and  extensive  scale.  In  that  year,  Congress,  acting 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  then  Secretary  of  War,  created 
the  office  of  Surgeon-General  of  the  Army.  The  Medical  De- 
partment was  not,  however,  fully  organized  upon  its  present 
basis,  until  the  year  1821,  when  the  surgeons  at  the  diflerent 


INTRODUCTION. 


military  posts  were  required  "  to  keep  a  diary  of  the  Aveatlier, 
and  to  note  everything  of  importance  relating  to  the  medical 
topography  of  his  station — the  chmate,  diseases  prevalent  in 
the  vicinity,"  A'c,  and  transmit  it  quarterly  to  the  Medical 
Bureau  at  Wasliington.  The  earliest  registers  thus  forwarded 
and  on  fde  in  the  Surgeon-General's  Office,  are  dated  Jan.,  1819. 

Thus  did  the  Medical  Department,  at  its  ver}-  origin,  as  a 
distinct  branch  of  the  staff  of  the  Army,  enter  i;pon  a  system 
of  meteorological  observations,  in  which  it  has  since  been  fol- 
lowed by  the  Topographical  Bureau,"  the  States  of  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  &c.,  also  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and 
numerous  Academies  and  Colleges  located  in  different  sections 
of  the  coimtry. 

"  Tfie  Akmy  Meteoi:ological  Eeglster,"  as  published  at  dif- 
ferent periods  by  order  of  the  Government,  embraces  observa- 
tions made  by  the  surgeons  of  the  armj  at  all  the  military 
posts  of  the  United  States,  from  1822  to  18G0,  which,  in  con- 
nection with  the  "  Medical  Statistics  of  the  Army,"  brought 
down  to  the  same  time,  includes  the  full  Meterological  Beports, 
and  a  Statistical  Bei>ort  on  the  Sickness  and  Mortality  in  the 
Begular  Army  for  a  period  of  thirty-eight  years. 

The  "  Kesults  of  Meteorological  Observations"  from  1854 
to  1859,  published  in  18G1,  under  the  direction  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  together  with  the  "Meteorological  Ab- 
stracts," contained  in  the  Eeport  of  the  ^'opographical  Bureau 
relating  to  the  Survey  of  the  Great  Lake! ,  on  our  northorn 
frontier,  all  go  to  furnish  additional  information  on  this  im- 
portant subject,  which,  together  with  recent  published  obser- 
vations along  the  Bocky  Moimtain  range,  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  altogether  furnish  facts  of  the  most  interesting  and  varied 
character,  which  are  now  beuig  justly  appreciated  by  the  m- 
teliigcnt  porton  of  the  community. 

These  combined  results,  in  connection  with  the  United  States 
Census  of  18G0,  and  the  Census  of  Canada  for  18G1,  furnish 
data  by  which  the  Inflnencc  of  Clirnatc  on  the  vital  subjects  of 
population,  health,  and  agricultural  productions,  can  be  favor- 
ably compar(Kl  over  the  greater  and  most  important  portions  of 
North  America. 

*  This  duty  lins  been  translerred  totlio  Corpa  of  Enginecra  of  the  U.  S.  Arniy. 


INTKODUCTIfiN. 


"  The  term  Climate,"  says  Dr.  Fony,  "  -svliich  is  limited,  in  its 
rigorous  acceptation,  to  a  mere  geographical  division,  and  in 
ordinary  parlance  to  the  temperature  of  a  region,  possesses,  in 
medical  science,  a  wider  signification.  It  embraces  not  only 
the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  but  all  those  modifications 
of  it  which  produce  a  sensible  effect  on  our  organs,  such  as  its 
serenity  and  humidity,  changes  of  eh'  jiric  tension,  variation  of 
barometric  pressure,  the  admixture  of  terrestrial  emanations 
dissolved  in  its  moisture,  and  its  tranquillity  as  respects  both 
horizontal  and  vertical  currents.  Climate,  in  a  word,  as  already 
defined,  constitutes  the  aggregate  of  all  the  external  physical 
circumstances  appertaining  to  each  locality  in  its  relation  to 
organic  nature."  '  To  observe,'  says  Professor  Rostan,  '  the 
simultaneous  effects  of  hglit,  heat,  electricity,  of  the  winds,  &c., 
on  the  organic  productions  of  the  different  zones  of  the  earth, 
to  explore  the  nature  of  this  earth,  to  deduce  from  this  know- 
ledge the  infiucnce  which  they  exercise  on  the  physical  and 
moral  state  of  man,  such  is  the  wide  field  which  climates  pre- 
sent to  our  investigation.' 

"  The  Httle  knowledge  that  we  possess  upon  these  various 
points,  is  far  from  being  precise.  On  the  one  hand,  Ave  are 
ignorant  of  wlmt  constitutes  the  real  elements  of  climate  ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  these  complex  agents  act  upon  living  organs 
still  more  complex  in  their  functions.  Our  knowledge  hereto- 
fore has  consisted  mainly  of  the  unexplained  results  of  expe- 
rience. As  the  subject  does  not  admit  of  the  precision  of  the 
exact  sciences,  the  aid  of  induction  and  analogy  must  be 
invoked.  Having  once  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  distinctive 
characters  of  different  systems  of  climate,  and  of  their  effects 
upon  the  animal  economy,  both  in  health  and  disease,  the  gen- 
eral laws  regulating  such  iniluences  may  be  readily  ascertained. 
In  regard  to  the  reinaining  elements  of  climate,  such  as  the 
admixture  of  terrestrial  emanations  dissolved  in  atmospheric 
moisture,  our  positive  knowledge  is  still  more  limited.  That 
mysterious  agent — Ma-la-ri-a — though  too  well  recognised  in 
its  deleterious  effects  on  the  human  frame,  has  hitherto 
remained  inscrutable  in  its  nature. 

"  It  is  thus  seen  that  there  are  many  circumstances  besides 
mere  temperature,  which  enter  into  the  constitution  of  climate. 


M'; 


xu 


INTRODUCTION. 


Amongst  these,  as  influencing  organized  beings,  one  of  the 
most  important  is  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  formation  of  which 
has  apparently  been  the  result  of  the  gradual  attrition  of  the 
solid  materials  composmg  the  crust  of  the  globe.  As  all  animals 
and  vegetables,  at  least  all  animals,  are  dependent  for  existence 
on  this  stratum  of  comminuted  mineral  substances  and  organic 
remains,  its  influence  in  regard  not  only  to  mere  health,  but  the 
(U'ganic  modifications  which  the  human  frame  experiences,  con- 
stitutes an  interestuig  subject  of  inquiry." 

The  same  author,  in  the  valuable  work,  entitled  "  The  Cli- 
ma'e  of  the  United  States  ami  its  Endemic  I)}'-'enccs,"  pubUshed  in 
New  York,  1842,  I'emarks :  "In  regard  to  the  climate  of  our 
own  country,  we  possess  no  treatise  foimded  on  facts.  Indeed, 
so  little  effort  has  been  made  to  keep  pace  with  the  progress 
of  kindred  branches  of  science,  that  the  Avork  of  M.  Volney, 
wi'itten  more  than  forty  years  ago,  is  still  quoted  by  every 
writer  on  the  subject.  In  relation  to  chmate,  nearly  all  facts 
stand  isolated,  and  inasmuch  as  to  render  such  data  valuable, 
it  is  necessary  that  they  be  collated,  thus  determining  their 
relations  to  one  another  and  to  general  laws,  the  attempt  has 
lieen  made  to  present  a  systematic  arrangement,  so  far  as  the 
facts  collected  will  warrant,  leaving  the  further  prosecution  of 
the  subject  to  a  period  when  new  data  shall  have  accunmlated." 

Professor  Rogers  says :  "  This  continent,  being  more  re- 
strict'-d  in  its  dimensiims,  especially  in  its  east  and  west  dia- 
meter, than  that  of  Euroi)e  and  Asia,  yet  comprises  almost  as 
wide  a  range  of  heat  and  cold,  and  of  dr^Tiess  and  humidity. 
Here  these  extremes  are  brought  together  within  narrower 
limits ;  there  they  are  expanded  both  in  latitude  and  longitude, 
over  wider  zones.  Here,  geogra])hicaUy,  their  transitions  are 
more  abrupt ;  there  their  gradations  are  more  gentle. 

"  This  close  packing  together  of  the  vai'ious  belts  of  tempera- 
ture and  humidity,  the  result  of  closer  proximity  of  the  earth's 
tropical  and  polar  cii^ronts,  oceanic  and  atmospheric,  occasions 
the  several  climates  of  the  continent  to  act  and  react  upon 
each  other  with  greater  potency.  Hence  the  whole  region  is 
(me  of  marked  climatic  contrasts,  as  striking,  Avheu  Ave  compare 
different  districts,  as  Avhen  we  regard  the  different  seasons." 

ITie  Pacific  or  Western  coast  of  America,  extending  eastward 


INTRODUCTION. 


xm 


to  the  summit  of  tlie  Rocky  Mountains,  including  the  great 
basin  of  Salt  Lake  in  Utah,  possesses  in  many  respects  a 
marked  difiference  of  climate  from  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
continent  facing  the  Atlantic.  The  Temperate  Zone  or  climate 
takes  a  much  wider  range  in  the  former,  extending  from  Sitka, 
in  Russian  America,  57^  north  latitude,  to  near  Monterey,  in 
Cahfornia,  3G^  north,  running  through  upwards  of  twenty  de- 
grees of  latitude,  where  the  mean  annual  temperature  ranges 
from  40'^  to  GO "  Fahrenheit.  The  more  southern  portion  of  the 
continent,  including  Lower  Cahfornia,  assumes  the  tropical 
character  of  the  Gulf  coast  of  Mexico,  embracing  Central 
America  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

To  the  north  of  Mount  St.  Elias,  GO^  north  latitude,  the  tem- 
perature is  cold  and  forbidthug,  partaldng  of  the  character  of 
the  more  eastern  portion  of  the  continent  along  the  coast  of 
Labrador.  Westward,  toward  Alaska,  the  climate  is  modified 
by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  here  flowing  eastward 
toward  the  northwest  coast  of  America.  The  cold  influence 
setting  down  fi'om  the  Arctic  Sea,  through  Bohring's  Strait, 
being  more  perceptibly  felt  on  the  oiDposite  side  of  Asia,  along 
the  coast  of  Kamschatka. 

North  America,  on  the  Pacific  side,  may  thus  be  said  to  be 
divided  into  three  gi'and  chmatic  di^'isions-  -giving  from  the 
Equator,  northward,  3G  degrees  to  the  Tropical  and  Semi- 
tropical  chmate ;  22  degrees  to  the  Temperate  chmate,  where 
the  wliite  race  may  live  in  safety  and  comfort ;  and  32  degi-ees 
to  the  cold  and  Frigid  climate  of  the  Arctic  region. 

The  volume  on  the  Influence  of  Climate  now  offered  to  the 
Pubhc,  is,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  only  American  or  English 
one  containing,  within  a  moderate  compass,  so  large  an 
amount  of  rehable  mformatiou  concei*ning  the  most  important 
subject  of  weather,  or  chmate,  and  presenting  at  the  same  time 
correct  statistics  as  to  population  and  agiicvdtural  products,  all 
of  which  are  closely  allied  to  the  subject  under  consideration. 
It  is  earaestly  and  respectfully  hoped  that  it  will  prove  useful, 
and  that  the  further  investigation  be  followed  by  more  compe- 
tent minds.  J.  Distuknell. 

New  York,  Januarj/,  1867. 


XIV 


CLIJIATE — ^ATMOSPHERE. 


CLIMATE. 

Physical  Climate  is  chiefly  determined  by — 

1.  The  Temperature  of  a  countxy  divided  into  Months  and 
Heasous. 

2.  The  Elevation  of  the  land  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

3.  The  nature  of  tlio  Soil ;  also,  whether  cleared  or  woodland. 

4.  Tlie  prevalent  Winds. 

5.  The  annual  quantity  of  Rain  or  Snow  that  falls. 
().  The  great  Oceanic  Currents. 


ATMOSPHERE. 

Meaauie  and  Weight  of  the  Atmosphere,  according  to  Dr.  Murray. 


Constituent  Parts. 


Nitrogen  gnR,  or  impiiro  air,. 
Oxygen  gas,  or  piiro  air,. . . . 

Aqueous  vapor 

Carbonic  acid  gas, 


Total, 


Mean  Normal  Temperature  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  of  tlie  Earth. 


1  )il»'.rciiee  of  the 

Latitude. 

January. 

July. 

Yearly  Mean. 

llottcKt  and  Coldest 
.Moiitlis. 

■J 

°      1 

/ 

<-      1 

O           1 

90  a 

—20  0 

+30  6 

+2  0 

57  0 

80  a 

—20  5 

34  1 

6  8 

54  6 

TO  a 

—11  9 

45  1 

16  0 

57  0 

65  h 

—  6  1 

51  6 

22  6 

57  7 

(iO  b 

4  ;}  0 

56  4 

30  2 

52  8 

50  c 

19  8 

62  6 

41  7 

42  8 

40  c 

40  4 

72  3 

56  5 

32  2 

;{()  d 

5S  (i 

78  4 

69  8 

22  0 

20  e 

70  1 

81  8 

77  5 

11  7 

10  e 

77  3 

80  8 

79  9 

8  6 

0  e 

79  4 

78  0 

79  7 

2  7 

Decrease  from  Equator 

to  the  Polo, 

106° 

48' 

77M' 

The  mean  Annual  Temperature  of  the  whole  earth,  at  the 
level  of  the  sea,  is  50^  Fahrenheit. 

a.  Frigid  Zone,  mostly  within  the  Arctic  Circle. 
h.  Cold  Zone. 

c.  Temperate  Zone. 

d.  Sub-Tropical  Zone. 

e.  Troj)ical,  or  Equatoiial  Zone. 

Note. — Tlio  Arctic  Circle  of  tho  sphere,  parallel  to  the  equator,  and  distant 
23°  28'  from  the  North  Polo,  from  whence  its  name.  This  and  its  opiKJsito,  the 
Ant-Arctic,  are  clIIocI  the  two  Polar  Circles, 


I 


ZONES,  OR  BELTS  OF  TEMrERATURE. 


TriE  Tropics,  and  Polar  or  Arotic  Circles  vlivido  the  surface 
of  the  Earth  into  Jive  great  climatic  zones  or  belts,  viz.  : 

1.  One  Torrid  Zone,  47^  in  brendth,  or  23.V'^  on  each  side  of 
the  Equator,  and  bounded  by  the  Tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capri- 
corn. Every  place  in  this  wide  region  has  tlie  sun  vertical  to 
it  twice  a  yeir  ;  and  as  the  sun's  rays  never  fall  very  obliquely 
on  any  part  of  it,  the  temperature  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
here  always  very  high,  averaging  from  78^  to  84^  mean  annual 
temperature  near  the  level  of  the  ocean.  Hero  the  grow  th  of 
vegetation  is  luxiiriant  and  man  indolent. 

2.  Two  Temperaic  Zmef^,  one  northern  and  the  otlier  southern, 
each  43-*  in  l)readth,  lying  between  the  Tropics  and  the  Polar 
Circles.  This  belt  is  properly  divided  into  three  parts,  viz. :  the 
Sub-tropical,  Temperate,  and  Cold  Zones.  The  Jirst  division 
has  a  mean  annual  temperature  ranging  from  78^  to  GO^  Fahr. ; 
here  snow  seldom  falls  nor  is  ice  formed,  wliile  fevers  of  dillerent 
types  are  prevalent.  On  the  Atlantic  coast  of  America,  it  ex- 
tends from  2o.y^  to  37^  north  latitude.  The  seeond  division  has  a 
mean  annual  temperature  ranging  from  00^  to  40"  Fahr.,  ex- 
tending from  37"  to  47"  north  latitude,  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  Hero  snow  and  ice  are  found,  particularly  in  the  mid- 
dle and  northern  portions.  The  middle  of  t}iis  zone  or  belt, 
50"  mean  annual  temperature,  is  the  most  favored  climate  on 
the  earth's  surface.  The  third  division  has  a  mean  annual 
temperature  ranging  from  40-  to  20"  Fahr.,  and  may  be  said 
to  extend  in  British  America  from  47"  to  GG.l"  north  latitude. 

These  zones,  lying  between  the  Tropics  and  the  Arctic  Circle, 
never  ha%'ing  the  sim  vertical,  are  characteiized  by  a  lower 
temperature  than  tropical  regions  ;  the  vegetation  and  fniits  of 
the  earth  are  less  luxuriant  and  spontaneous ;  and  man,  com- 
pelled to  cxei'cise  his  corpcn-eal  and  thinking  powers,  attains  to 
a  higher  degTce  of  intelligence  and  civilization  than  in  those 
regions  where  his  wanta  arc  supplied  without  any  exertion  on 
his  part. 

8.  The  two  Fri<iid  Zane^',  each  231"  in  radius,  are  included 
within  the  Polar  Circles,  called  the  Arctic  and  Ant-arctic  Circles, 
by  wa}"^  of  distinction.  They  are  deprived  of  the  influence  of 
of  the  sun  for  long  intervals  in  winter,  and  have  a  correspond- 
ingly greater  length  of  day  in  summer,  when  his  rays  fall  very 
obliquely  on  the  surface.  These  conditions,  ctnipled  %vitli  the 
extreme  cold  of  the  long  winters,  are  so  unfavorable  to  human 
culture  and  human  happiness,  tluit  the  tribes  who  inhabit  the 


i 


ZTi 


ISOTHERMAL  LINES  AND  CLIMATIC  ZONES. 


Northern  Frigid  Zone  have  not  been  able  to  attam  to  any  con- 
siderable degree  of  ci\dhzation — the  Southern  Frigid  Zone  being 
entirely  destitute  of  settlement  by  the  human  family.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  in  this  fiigid  inhospitable  chmate 
varies  fi'oia  20^  to  0'\  and  even  below  zero. 

It  thus  appears  that  about  one-third  of  the  earth's  surfoce  is 
too  hot,  and  one-third  too  cold  for  the  advancement  of  the  hu- 
man species,  the  remaining  third  embraced  within  tho  Temperate 
Zones  alone,  being  litted  for  progress  and  the  full  development 
of  tho  human  race. 


1 


Isothermal  Lines  and  Climatic  Zones. 

"  As  the  temperature  of  any  place  depends  on  a  multitude  of 
causes  besides  latitude,  it  is  obvious  that  the  old  designa- 
tions of  Torrl'I,  Tcmpsrate,  and  Frigid  Zones,  bounded  by  the 
Tropics  and  Polar  Circles,  do  not  adequately  express  the  tem- 
perature, and  far  less  the  general  chmatic  character,  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  earth's  surface.  Humboldt  and  others  have 
accordnigly  substituted  other  lines  instead  of  the  parallels,  as 
the  true  boundaries  of  climatic  zones  ;  viz..  Isothermal,  IsocJiei- 
menal  and  Isothcrcd  lines.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  any 
given  place  may  be  readily  ascertained  by  means  of  the  ther- 
mometer; and  imaginary  lines  connecting  together  all  the 
places  in  the  same  hemisphere,  having  the  same  mean  annual 
temperature,  are  called  Isotherms.  The  Isocheimenals  are 
similar  lines  connecting  places  that  have  the  same  winter  tem- 

{)erature,  and  the  Isotheral  lines  are  drawn  between  places 
laving  the  same  summer  toniyerature.  These  lines  of  equal  tem- 
perature approximate  more  or  less  to  the  diref-tion  of  the  equa- 
tor, though  they  are  nowhere  parallel  to  it.  They  diverge  more 
from  it  in  the  northern  than  m  the  southern  hemisphere,  and 
greatly  more  in  high  than  in  low  latitudes.  The  hottest  portion 
of  the  earth's  surface  is  an  oval  shaped  ix-act  in  East  Africa,  ex- 
tending from  Lake  Tchad  to  Mecca,  and  tho  Strait  of  Babel- 
mandeb,  having  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  83^ ;  and  the 
coldest,  so  far  as  yet  ascertained,  is  a  long  narroAV  belt  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  midway  between  Behring  Strait  and  the  North 
Pole,  and  extending  from  Melville  Island,  in  the  direction  of 
New  Siberia,  with  an  average  temperature  of  O^'  Falir.  It 
api:iears,  therefore,  that  the  hottest  region  is  not  under  the 
Equator,  nor  the  coldest  under  the  Pole  ;  that  all  the  hues 

of  equal  temperature  m  the  northern  liemisjihere  attain  their 
highest  latitude  in  tho  eastern  side  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean — 
owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  high  temperature  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
which  flows  northward  along  the  western  shore  of  Europe.  By 
means  of  these  Is^otherms  each  homishphere  is  divided  by  the 
meteorologist  into  Jive  chmatic  zones,  named  respectively,  the 


NATURAL  ES'FLUENCES  THAT  PEODUCE  RAIN,  ETC. 


XVU 


metoorolop;ist  into  five  climatic  zones,  named  rcspectjvoly,  the 
Jtot,  or  equatorial,  the  u'ann,  tcmjjcraU;  told,  andfrujid,  or  j^olar 
zone." 

Natural  Influences  that  Produce  Rain,  &c. 

From  tlic  facts  cstablishoa  in  regard  to  the  great  Ocean  Cur- 
rents, sweeping  across  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  as  well 
as  across  the  Indian  Ocean,  it  seems  evident  that  the  abundance 
of  moisture  in  the  sha})e  of  rain  which  falls  in  the  A\'est  Indies, 
and  along  the  Gulf  coast  of  Mexico  (*J()  to  110  inches),  as  well 
as  the  southern  coast  of  the  United  States,  including  Texas, 
Louisiana,  Alabama,  Florida,  and  the  Caroliuas,  is  due  to  the 
infiuenco  of  the  great  Equatorial  Current  and  Gulf  Stream. 

This  benign  inlluencc,  no  doubt,  extends  far  inland,  until  it 
is  met  by  otlier  currents  of  air,  produced  by  similar  causes  in 
nature.  It  pcn(  trates  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  far  inland, 
being  met  by  a  counter  desceniling  current  of  air,  swcej)ing 
across  the  liocky  Mountains,  north  of  the  4'.)th  parallel  of  lati- 
tude. This  eoimter  current  of  air,  charged  Avith  a  less  amount 
of  moisture,  no  doubt,  proceeds  from  the  infiuence  of  the  great 
Pacific  current  first  passing  over  Ilussian  and  liritish  America, 
in  its  course  toward  Dakota  and  Minnesota. 

The  annual  amount  of  rain  falling  in  the  Southern  States  is 
fifty-one  inclies,  the  quantity  decrcitsing  as  you  ascend  north- 
eastward ;  the  Middle  States  and  New  England  States  having 
a  fail  of  about  forty  inches  annuallv,  Avhile  the  annual  fall  of 
rain  and  snow  in  the  Northwestern  States  is  only  about  thirty 
inches ;  the  average  quantity  falling  in  the  United  States  being 
thirty-six  inches. 

Sweejiing  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  a  northeast  direction, 
the  Gulf  Stream  carries  its  benign  influence  to  Ireland  and  the 
west  coast  of  England,  continuing  still  northward  to  the  coast 
of  Norway,  and  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  carrying  in  its  extended 
course  warmth  and  moisture. 

The  Pacific  current  alike  performs  a  beneficent  part  in  dis- 
tributing heat  and  moisture  along  the  extended  western  coast 
of  North  America,  f^om  the  Aleutian  Islands  to  Lower  Cali- 
fornia. The  amount  of  rain  decreasing  as  you  proceed  south- 
ward. 

The  temperature  of  this  cTvtended  region  seems  to  be  inliu- 
enced  differently  fi'om  any  other  portion  of  the  globe,  there 
being  nearly  an  uniform  temperature  of  many  hundred  miles 
running  from  north  to  south,  along  the  coast  and  valleys  of 
Oregon  and  California.  The  same  mean  annual  tenq)erature, 
about  52^  Fahr.,  being  found  to  exist  at  Astoria,  Oregon,  as  at 
Fort  Humboldt,  Cal.,  situated  near  Cape  Mc'ndociuo,  the  two 


M 


•fl* 


xvm 


ANNUAL  JTE^VN  TE3JPERATU1JE. 


1 


i     I 


posts  being  separated  by  about  five  and  a  half  degrees  of 
latitudo. 

Itahi  in,  in  general,  most  abundant  about  tlie  Ec^uator,  and 
the  quantity  decreases  in  a  direction  toAvard  tlio  Poles  ;  because 
heat,  which  is  the  origin  of  vapor  and  the  cause  of  rain,  de- 
creases in  the  same  direction. 

This  decrease  occurs  in  the  following  order : 
The  annual  amount  of  rain  under  the  Tropics  of  the 

New  World  is 

The  anmial  amount  of  rain  under  the  Tropics  of  the 

01(1  World, 

Within  the  Tropics  generally,    .... 
In  the  Temperate  Zone  of  the  Now  World  (Uniteel 

States),   ........ 

Temperate  Zone  of  the  Old  World  (Europe),     . 
Average  within  the  Temperate  Zone, 


112  inches. 
80       " 

38  ** 
34  " 
3G       " 


Annual  Mean  Temperature. 

Starting  from  the  Ecpiator,  and  going  north,  along  the  meri- 
dian of  the  city  of  Washington,  we  find  the  followmg  singular 
results  in  regard  to  annual  moan  teuiperature  : 


BTATION'3. 

DEC.  F 

vim. 

fiTATIOXS. 

DEO.  F. 

\n\\. 

Quayaquil,  iieiir  the  Equator, 

^y 

New  York,     . 

40°  43' 

N 

I-at 

.  51* 

Ptintnna,    .         .           8    TM 

N.  Lat 

.80' 

West  Point,  N.  Y. 

,  4r  2;;' 

50° 

Kinirston,  Jamaica,  18° 

78^ 

AHiany,  N.  Y., 

.  42'  1'7' 

48° 

Havana,  Cuba,   .       2:5"  0' 

7.V 

Montreal,  Can., 

.  4")^  ;}0' 

45° 

Now  Orleans,      .     2i)' r)?' 

70' 

Quebec,  Can., 

.  4(r  4!)' 

41° 

Charleston,  S.  C,     'A'Z'  45' 

isr 

Nain,  Labrador, 

.  5(1'  W 

28° 

Norfolk,  Va., .         .  lUi    r,0' 

(10' 

Hudson  Hay,  . 

.  5!) ' 

20° 

Was'ninsrton,  D.  C,  iSS "  WA' 

nc." 

Fox  Channel, 

.05° 

10° 

Plnlad.-li)hia,        .   3i)=  5? 

53° 

Within  the   Arctic 

Circle, 

.70° 

« 

0* 

From  this  exhibit,  it  seems  conclusive  that  the  mean  annual 
temperature  on  the  Continent  of  America,  by  Fahrenheit's 
scale,  corresponds  to  the  degrees  of  latitude — thus  there  being 
00  degrees  of  latitude  ixom  the  Equator  to  the  Pole,  the  mean 
annual  temperature  varies  from  '4i'ro,  and  below,  to  85^  Falir. 
on  the  hottest  portions  of  the  earth's  surface.  Allowing  for  an 
increa.se  of  cokl  as  you  approach  north,  toward  the  Pole,  of 
five  degrees  less  annual  tenq)crature,  and  you  have  the  rcsiilt 
verified.  The  further  fact,  that  Montreal,  Canada,  situated  in 
45^  30'  north  latitude,  about  midway  between  the  Equator  and 
North  Pole,  having  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  45  -"  Fahr., 
is  further  convincing  jiroof  of  tlio  above  statement. 


PART  I. 
CLLMATE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


The  Continent  of  North  America,  extending  from  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama,  near  llio  9tli  parallel,  to  within  tho  Arctic 
Circle,  jiossesses  every  variety  of  climate  from  the  tropical 
heat  of  80^  Fahr.  to  tho  frigid  cold  of  Zero,  mean  annual  tem- 
perature. "  It  differs  from  the  eastern  hemisphere  by  a  greater 
predominance  of  cold ;  it  being  calculated  that  tho  heat  is  at 
least  ten  degrees  less  upon  an  average  on  the  American  Con- 
tinent, tluin  under  tho  same  parallels  in  Europe.  Tluis,  Avhilo 
Denmark  and  the  southern  part  of  Sweden  enjoy  comparatively 
temperate  seasons  and  mild  air,  Labrador,  and  tho  countries 
inhabited  by  tho  Esquimaux,  though  lying  in  a1)out  tho  same 
parallel,  are  extremely  cold — even  the  Torrid  Zone  of  America, 
contiguous  to  the  Caribbean  Sea,  knows  none  of  those  intense 
heats  which  are  experienced  in  Asia  and  Africa."  These  re- 
marks apply  more  particularly  to  the  eastern  than  tho  western 
side  of  the  Contuient  of  America. 

"  In  North  America,  cultivation  is  extended  on  tho  eastern 
coast,  and  near  Hudson  Bay,  to  tho  parallel  of  54 -"  north ;  in 
Asia,  it  has  reached  57^  ;  but  in  Europe  it  has  been  carried  as 
high  as  70^,  to  near  North  Capo,  in  Lapland." 

On  the  west  coast  of  America,  in  the  Eussian  Possessions, 
and  on  Mackenzie's  Eivcr,  in  British  America,  cultivation  ex- 
tends to  GO-'  north,  and  upwards ;  being,  no  doubt,  favorably 
influenced  by  warm  currents  of  air  from  off  the  Paciffc  Ocean. 

"  The  great  cause  of  the  cold  in  North  America  has  been 
attributed  to  the  qiiantity  of  land  stretching  toAvards  the  North 
Pole,  a  proportion  of  which  is  involved  in  perpetual  winter. 
The  wind,  in  passing  over  this  snow  and  ice-clad  region,  brings, 
it  is  said,  a  severity  of  cold  which  nothing  resists  in  sweeping 


m 


1 


20 


rNTLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


over  13affiuH'  and  Hudson  Buy.  Tlu;  wliolo  of  tlio  eontral  and 
oaatorn  jiortion  of  America,  norlli  of  tho  55th  parallel,  may  be 
considered  a  frozen  inlio.spitablu  rejjflon.  In  Greenland,  Lab- 
rador, and  around  Hudson  ]3ay,  brandy  li-eczcs  duiing  winter, 
wliicli  be<^ins  about  the  1st  of  8eptend)er,  and  continues  lor 
nine  months.  In  sunnner  tho  heat  ia  often  as  gi'{>at  as  in  New 
England ;  but  continues  for  too  short  a  period  to  bring  gi'ass 
or  vegetables  to  maturit}.  T'etween  55^  and  47^  north,  tl  c 
climate  is  still  severe  ;  the  cold  of  ^vinter  is  steady  and  intense, 
and  tho  snow,  which  begins  to  fall  in  November,  remains  till 
May.  Here  summer  advances  with  such  rai)idity,  that  the 
season  of  spring  is  scarcely  luiown."  Tho  above  desciubed  re- 
gions includes  tho  Cold  and  Frujid  Zones  of  America. 

The  sovf/urn  limit  of  this  great  belt,  extending  to  4.7°  north 
latitude  on  tho  castera  portion  of  the  continent,  rises  as  you 


rising 


to  57' 


as 


you 


approach  Lake  Winnipeg  to  about  50' 

approach  tho  North  PaciEc  coast  in  the  Ilussian  Possessions. 

The  stretch  of  country  along  the  line  of  temperature  that 
divides  tho  cold  and  temperate  zones  (40'^  Fahr.)  is  so  distinctly 
marked,  as  regards  cultivation  and  settlement,  that  an  observing 
traveller  passing  west  from  near  Quel)ec  to  the  head  of  nf,viga- 
tion  on  the  Ottawa  lUver,  and  thence  to  the  north  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  passing  up  the  St.  Mary's  liiver,  can  perceive  the 
last  vestige  of  civilized  habitation.  This  marked  and  singular 
circunistanco  can  only  bo  attributed  to  the  liability  of  killing 
fi'osts  all  along  this  extended  lino  during  tho  summer  months — 
])otatoes,  Vt'heat,  and  other  hardy  vegetables,  and  cereals,  being 
destroyed  for  the  want  of  a  season  of  uninternipted  heat  sufH- 
cient  to  bring  them  to  perfection. 

The  temj^crate  portion  of  America,  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  may 
bo  considered  as  extending  from  47^  to  37^  north  latitude, 
(Quebec,  Can.,  to  Norfolk,  Va.)  The  southern  limit  of  this  zone 
(60°  Fahr.)  is  also  strongly  marked  by  diflcrent  vegetable  pro- 
ductions, and  a  different  class  of  diseases  peculiar  to  the  human 
family.  Here  commences  tho  cotton  region,  and  the  prevalence 
of  malignant  fevers ;  there  being  no  severe  fi'osts,  and  little  or 
no  snow  during  the  winter  months. 

The  Semi- Tropical  Zone  may  bo  said  to  extend  from  37°  to  25'^ 
north  latitude,  or  from  Norfolk,  Va.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Bio 


CIJMATE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


21 


Graudo,  in  Texas.  Horo  is  another  marked  feature  in  tho 
vegetable  kingdom,  tlio  trees  becoming  dwarfed  with  a  rank 
undergrowth  of  vegetation. 

Tho  Trojiicnl  Zone  extends  from  25^  nortli  latitude  to  the 
Equator,  where  tho  animal  and  vegctabh?  kingdoms  are  of  a 
tropical  or  equatorial  character,  contrasting  .strongly  vrith 
the  productions  of  tho  more  northern  zones,  or  sections  of 
countrv. 

Thus,  North  America,  cast  of  tho  Rocky  IMountains,  may  bo 
justly  divided  into  fve  grand  Climatic  Divisions,  being  marked 
b}^  difforcmt  races  of  men,  or  traits  of  character,  and  dil^'erent 
vegetal )lo  productions.  IVcst  of  tho  Rocky  Mountain  range  is 
found  a  climate  peculiar  to  the  region  of  the  Pacific  coast  of 
America.  AVithin  this  wide  extent  of  country,  running  through 
90  degi-ecs  of  latitude,  from  tho  Equator  to  the  North  Pole,  may 
be  found  almost  every  variety  of  tho  vcgetaljle  kingdom — from 
tl-'O  stunted  growth  of  tho  Arctic  Circle  to  tho  lofty  white  pine 
of  the  North  or  Temperate  Zone,  tlic  yellow  or  pitch-pine  of  the 
South,  or  Sub-tropical  Zono,  and  the  rank  evergreens  of  the 
Torrid  or  Ecpiatorial  Zono. 

To  the  extreme  north  tho  Esquimaux  alone  reside,  unused  to 
all  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  civilized  life  ;  while  south  of 
Hiv.lson  Bay  and  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  iiorth  of  Quebec, 
the  European  settler  and  the  more  hardy  tribe  of  Indians  are 
found  in  limited  numbers,  being  niostl}'  engaged  in  hunting  and 
fishing.  South  of  47^  north,  running  through  the  temperate 
and  semi-tropical  climate  to  tho  25tli  parallel,  the  pure  white 
race  holds  dominion  on  this  contment,  although  the  Indian  and 
African  races  are  intermingled. 

South  of  the  Rio  Grande,  within  the  confines  of  Mexico,  the 
climate  becomes  tropical.  Horo  are  to  be  found  the  mixed 
Spanish  race,  their  blood  being  so  far  intermingled  with  the 
Indian  and  African  races  as  to  make  them  an  inferior  people, 
Avhen  compared  with  tho  pure  Castiliau  race,  whose  blood 
flowed  in  tho  veins  of  the  early  conquerors  of  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America. 

Another  distinct  feature  of  the  nature  that  marks  these  great 
climatic  divisions  of  North  America,  are,  that  the  tropical  re- 
gion is  divided  into  but  two  seasons,  the  icet  and  the  drijf 


w. 


22 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


11 


i    '  I     * 


mi 


whcro  hj  fill"  tlio  groafcost  nniouiit  of  Dioisturo  falls  dnving  tlio 
wet  scaHou,  ofti^ii  ill  deluging  torrents  of  rain,  accompanied  oy 
fierc(^  winds.  The  tcniptuato  region  has  four  regular  seasons, 
Spring,  Suninior,  Autumn,  anil  Winter.  Those  ditlbrcnt  seasons 
arc  usually  attondcMl  Avith  alxmt  the  same  amount  of  moisture, 
a  jiorticm,  however^  falHng  in  the  shape  of  snow— this  latter 
phenomena  showing  an  exem])tion  from  malignant  contagicnis 
fevers,  which  are  the  scourge  of  the  semi-tropical  and  tropical 
portion  of  the  continent.  T  le  extreme  ncn-thern  or  cold  rt>gion, 
which  may  be  termed  hupcrhym-mi,  although  free  from  malignant 
diseases,  yet  unfits  man  to  acquire  the  full  development  of  his 
higher  faculties — hence  wo  see  in  this  dreary  section  a  half- 
savage  race,  which  are  ahme  fitted  hy  nature;  to  live  in  northern 
latitudes."'  Again,  the  food  and  the  clothing  necessaiy  for  the 
comfort  of  these  diiferent  races  of  men  are  as  distinct  as  the 
clinuxte,  showing  ])lainly  that  it  is  at  the  risk  of  life  to  change 
suddenlv  the  residence  of  man,  as  well  as  the  inferior  animals, 
from  one  extreme  temperature  to  one  of  a  marked  opposite 
influ(>nce. 

A  late  English  writer  says,  "In  a  (nmtinent  endu-acing  75  de- 
greets  of  latitude,  and  lUMirly  twice  as  many  of  longitude,  the 
varieties  of  climate  must  be  very  great.  S2)(!aking  generally, 
however,  we  lind  that  its  A'arious  ])ortions  have;  a  lower  average 
tem])(>rature  than  the  corriisponding  latitiuhis  ol'  the  Okl  World. 

''  The  western  side  of  tin;  c(,>ntinent,  however,  is  greatly 
warmer  than  its  eit,stern.  For  example,  in  llussian  America, 
tlie  Island  of  Sitka  has  a  mean  annual  tcnuiKH'atun^  of  42^  Fahr., 
Avhile  Nain,  in  Labradcu',  near  clu;  same  latitude,  57  '  north,  has 
a  mean  temperature  of  only  21)  \  Tlu;  dili'ercnco  between  the 
mean  summer  and  the;  minm  Avint(>r  tem])eratures  is  still 
greater ;  for  while  at  Sitka  and  San  Francisco  it  amounts  to 
only  22  \  sit  Nain  and  Quebec  it  amounts  to  44  '  and  54 '. 

"  The  hottest  ])orti()n  of  tlie  New  Woi'ld  lies  mainly  within 
this  continent,  being  embriiced  within  tlu;  isothermal  lin(>.  of  >S1^ 
Fahr.,  which  encloses  tlu>  (iulf  of  IMexico  and  the  (!aribboan 
Sea — that  great  cauldron  of  heatcnl  waters  which  originat(>s  the 
Gulf  Stream — the  West  Indies,  the  eastern  side  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  and  the  northern  part  of  New  Granada  on  the 

*  Man  is  found  from  tlm  7~)tli  dc^j^riM;  of  north  Itititudi!  (in  North  Aiiu'ricit)  to 
Terra  'Icl  Fuc^o,  "t '  wouth  (in  South  AnuTica),  witli  tJiis  lUiirkod  dilU'rencc,  that 
tho  dwarfed  Esiiuiniaux  of  the  nortliern  continent  is  strangely  placed  in  con- 
trast with  the  lullgrown  race  of  the  rutagoniuns  of  tho  soutliera. 


CLIMATE  OF  NORTTI  AMERICA. 


23 


nil 

\l' 
m 

a 

10 


Isthnnifl  of  Pniiainii.  Tlio  coldest  region  of  North  Aincrica  nr.\ 
of  tlio  Now  World  is  ciiibnicod  within  tho  isocliiiiionul  Wuv.  of 
2(i  '  Itolow  /(TO — ii  h"no  which,  (•('luiiiciicinj^'  iit  C:i\)o.  ]],'it]iurst, 
iiviiY  tho  montli  of  tlio  M;u'lcoiizio,  doih'cts  southoustwardly  to 
tho  head  of  Chesttn'li{>hl  lidet  (south  of  th(!  Mr.^Mioti(^  Polo),  and 
thcnice  northwards  to  Lancaster  Sound  and  North  Devon. 
North  America  is  also  nmvo  humid  than  the  correspondini.;;  lati- 
tudes of  the  Old  World.  It  is  eakulated  that  110  iiu'hes  of 
rain  fall  anmially  in  tropical  America,  wliilo  in  tropii'al  Asia 
and  Africa  i\\v.  amount  does  not  cxcccmI  SO  inches.  In  the  tem- 
])eratc!  r<>Li;ions  of  the  eastern  continent  the  annual  avera^^'o  is 
estimate  \  at  IM  inelies,  while  it  amounts  to  oH  inches  in  tho  eor- 
res])ondin;4  /out;  of  the  wfistern.  The  rainiest  re^jjiou  of  this 
continent  c()rres[)onds  with  the  re;i;ion  oi  liij^hest  tem])ei'ature 
above  described,  in  which,  as  well  as  in  Lower  Oalifornia, 
Soutlau'U  M(>xic(>,  iuid  all  (Jenti'al  America,  snow  luivei' falls." 

l>oi'ANV. — The  same  writer  remarks:  "  The  Nt>w  World  has 
lon;^  bet^n  fniuiid  for  tlu;  ])r<)di<i;i()us  luxuriance  and  variety  of 
its  voj>('tati()U,  as  well  as  its  ])eculiar  cliniatt!.  AVhen  the  north- 
ern continent  was  disc()V(>i'(;il,  one  vast  continuous  forest  covered 
the  whole  surface,  fi'om  t\u)  St.  Lawrence  and  tla;  Cireat  iiahes 
to  tlu!  (Julf  of  Mexico,  ah)U[>;  the  A]))>alachian  ran;j;e,  and  i'rcmi 
tho  Eoclcy  Mountains  on  the  noilh  to  the  Atlantic,  endiracinp; 
an  area  of  U])wards  of  two  millions  of  S(]uare.  mik^s.  Much  of 
this  ocean  of  vegc^tation  has  since  been  cleared  away,  tliou^^h. 
to  this  day,  hundreds  of  miles  of  luibrok^'U  forest  exist  in  seViU'al 
localities,  whilt^  boundless  ]»rairies,  destitute  of  trees,  lait  covered 
■with  tall  }j;rasses,  occupy  vast  tracts  iji  tli(^  centre  of  th(>  coniin(^nt, 
and  on  tho  eastern  sid(>.  of  tho.  llochy  Mcmntains.  The  forest 
tr(>es  are  extremely  numerous  in  s])(>cies,  (mibracin^  many  varie- 
ties of  oak  and  pine?,  Avith  tlu;  ash,  birch,  beech,  cedar,  chestinit, 
cott(m-AVood,  cypress,  juniper,  hickory,  locust,  nia])l(>,  nndberry, 
j)01)lar,  and  walnut.  As  the  traveller  ])ass(>s  northwards  into 
the  British  territorii>s,  tlu;  variety  of  s))(;ci(>s  is  smaller,  endirao 
ing  mainl}'  pjU(>s,  cedars,  larches,  as{)ens,  po]-,lars,  alders,  hazels, 
})irch,  and  willows  ;  whiles  towards  iho  shores  of  tho  Arctic  ()c(!an 
th(^  trees  Ikm-oiuc^  fewcM-  iinunuber  and  more  stunted  in  size,  till 
at  length  tho  dwarf  willow,  six  inches  in  htught,  is  tla;  sole  ro))- 
rosentativo  of  tho  gigantic  trins  of  the  temperate  and  tro])ical 


regions. 


"  Wlll^AT  is  the  cereal  Avhich  reciuii'es  most  h(!at  of  those  usu- 
ally cultivated  in  England.     Its  culture  is  said  to  ascend  to  O'J 
or  64^'  nortli  latitude,  on  tlus  Avest  side  of  tlu^  Scandinavian  pen- 
insula, but  not  to  b(i  of  im])ortance  beyond  the  (lO'h.     On  tho 
route  of  the  Expedition,"  it  is  raised  with  piotit  at  Fort  Liard, 

*  yir  John  lUclmrdaon  in  biuiili  ot'tsir  Jolin  Franklin,  i84S. 


'- 1 


Mi 


B 


!   I 


■i  1 1 


ii 


24 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


British  Amorica,  in  latiiado  60^  north,  longitude  ]*j2^  31'  west, 
and  liavinpj  an  altitude  of  between  400  and  500  foot  above 
the  sea.  This  locality,  however,  being  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  is  siibject  to  summer  frosts,  and  the  grain 
does  not  ripen  perfectly  every  year,  though  in  favorable  seasons 
it  gives  a  good  retrru.  It  grows,  however,  freely  on  the  banks 
of  the  Saskatchewan  {ind  Lake  Winnipeg,  except  near  Hudson 
Bay,  where  the  summer  temperature  is  too  low. 

"  At  Fort  James,  on  the  borders  of  >Stiiart's  Lake,  in  latitude 
54.]  ^  north,  in  a  mountainous  region,  near  the  source  of  Frazor's 
Biver,  Avheat  continues  to  grow,  but  often  suffers  from  the  sum- 
mer frosts.  In  these  (puirters  the  grain  comes  to  maturity  in 
about  four  months.  In  the  colony  of  Bed  Biver  its  growth  is 
luxuriant,  though  the  n])pcr  part  of  that  country,  which  touches 
the  41)tli  parallel  of  latitude,  is  elevated  about  900  feet  above 
the  sea.  Periodical  ravages  of  grasshoppers,  however,  fre- 
quently destroy  the  ho]ies  of  the  husbandman. 

"  At  Fort  Fi-ancis,  situated  on  the  banks  of  Bainy  Biver,  in 
latitude  48-^  35'  north,  93^  28'  Avest,  Avlioat  is  generally  sown 
about  the  first  of  IVLiy,  and  is  reaped  m  the  latter  end  of  August, 
after  nn  interval  of  alxnit  120  days." 

"  PoUifdc^,  which  have  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial 
on  the  banks  of  Lake  Titicaca,  So'utli  America,  yield  abundantly 
at  Fort  Laird,  and  grow,  though  inferior  in  quality,  at  Fort 
Sim]">.-ion,  02-^  north  latitude. 

"  On  the  Island  of  Hitka,  lying  m  57^-58^  north  latitude, 
though  the  forest,  nourished  by  a  coiaparatively  high  mean 
tem])erature  and  a  very  moist  atmosphere,  is  ecjual  to  that  of 
the  richest  woodlands  of  the  Northern  L'nited  States,  yet  corn 
does  not  grow.*' 

The  climate  of  South  America  is  generally  superior  to  that  of 
the  northern  part  of  the  continent  in  all  the  districts  north  of 
the  50th  parallel  of  southern  latitude ;  but  to  the  soutlt  of  that 
line,  the  cold  increases  more  rapidly  than  it  does  as  we  approach 
the  Polo  in  the  Arctic  regions.  Among  other  causes  Avhich 
powerfully  influence  the  temperature  in  South  America  and 
Central  America,  must  be  reckoned  the  extraordinary  elevation 
of  the  surface  in  many  places.  Thus  the  city  of  Mexico  (19^ 
25'  north),  which  according  to  its  latitude,  should  be  cxccssi\uiy 
hot,  being  elevated  7,500  feet  above  sea-hn'el,  enjoys  a  climate 
(jf  jierpetual  r.pring  ;  and  (^>uito,  elevated  9,543  feet,  which  hes 
under  tlu^  Ecpiator,  has  a  similar  climate,  though  Avithin  sight 
of  that  city  are  regions,  at  an  elevation   of  10,000  or  18,000 


CLIMATE  OF  NORTH  AJrERICA. 


25 


feet,*  ■v^'hich  are  covered  with  nevcr-cliaTitnng  masses  of  snow 
and  ice  ;  and  at  the  distance  of  a  few  miles,  the  inhabitants  of 
Guayaquil,  on  a  low  and  level  margin  of  the  sea,  experience  an 
intense  and  sicV.ly  degree  of  heat. 

"  The  three  zones  of  tcmperatxire  Avhicli  originate  in  Amer- 
ica," says  Malte  Brun,  "  from  the  enormous  ditierence  of  level 
betvreen  the  various  regions,  cannot  by  any  means  be  compared 
with  the  zones  which  result  from  a  ditierence  of  latitude.  The 
agreeab/le,  the  salutary  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons  are  wanting 
in  those  regions  that  are  here  distingiiished  bv  tlu;  denomma- 
tioiis  of  //•/(//(/,  fcnijrra/c,  hot  (U*  torrkl.  Li  the  t'rigid  Zone  it  is 
not  the  intensity  but  the  continuance  of  the  cold — the  absence 
of  all  vivid  heat — the  constant  humidity  of  a  foggy  atmosphere, 
that  arrest  the  gi'owth  of  the  great  vegetable  protluctions,  and, 
in  man,  perpetuate  those  diseases  that  arise  from  chei-ked  per- 
spiration. The  Hot  Zone  of  America  does  not  experience  ex- 
cessive h(\at ;  but  it  is  a  continuance  of  tlie  heat,  togetlier  with 
exhalations  from  a  marshy  soil,  and  the  miasmata  of  an  im- 
mense mass  of  vegetable  putrefactions,  add(^d  to  the  eliects  of 
an  extreme  humiclity,  which  ju-oduces  fevers  of  a  more  or  less 
dest.  uctive  nature,  and  s})reads  through  the  whole  animal  and 
vegetable  world  the  agitation  of  an  exuberant  but  deranged 
vital  princii)le.  The  Temperate  Zone,  hj  possessing  only  a 
moderate  and  constant  Avarmth  like  that  of  a  hot-house,  ex- 
eludes  from  its  limits  the  animals  and  vegetables  which  delight 
in  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  produces  its  own  peculiar 

t slants,  Avhich  can  neither  grow  al)Ove  its  limits,  nor  tlescend 
jclow  them.  Its  temperatiire,  which  does  brace  the  constitution 
of  its  constant  inhabitants,  acts  like  spring  on  the  diseases  of  tho 
hot  regions,  and  like  summer  on  those  of  the  frozcui  regions : 
accordingly,  a  mere  journey  fi'om  the  Andes  to  the  level  of  tho 
sea,  or  vice  i'crn((,  proves  an  important  medical  agent,  which  is 
sufiicient  to  produce  the  most  astonishing  chnnges  in  the  human 
body.  But,  living  constantly  in  either  one  or  the  other  of  these 
zones,  must  eriervate  both  the  mind  and  the  body  by  its  mono- 
tonous tranquillity.  Sunimer,  Spring  and  WtnUr  are  here  seated 
on  three  distinct  thrcmes,  which  they  seldom  quit,  and  are  con- 
constantly  surrounded  by  the  attributes  of  their  power." 

Mountains  and  Rivers. 

The  Monniahi  and  llicir  Si/-sfcms  of  North  America,  when 
viewed  in  their  proper  light,  in  connection  with  a  healthy  cli- 
mate, are  of  the  most  grand  and  benelicent  character,  as  regards* 

*  Hoiglit  of  the  Buow-line  iu  the  Amlus  of  Quito,  l.jjSOO  feet. 


f 


2C 


INFLUENCE  OF  CIJMATE. 


their  influeuco  on  the  {miiniil  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  adapting 
most  of  this  immense  region  to  the  abode  oil  civilized  imm — 
now  being  fast  peopled  by  different  races  em^igrating  from  Eu- 
rope and  Asia. 

The  two  great  mountain  systems  which  give  rise  to  almost 
innumerable  streams,  arc  the  Alleghany  or  Appalachian  range 
of  mountains,  traversing  the  Atlantic  States,  and  the  Eocky 
Mountains  and  coast  range  of  the  Pacitic  coast.  The  Eocky 
Mountain  range,  forming  the  gi-eat  axis  or  vertebral  column  of 
the  continent,  is  by  far  the  most  extensive,  running  through  the 
entire  length  of  North  America,  under  different  names,  a  dis- 
tance of  five  or  six  thousand  miles,  presenting  in  their  course 
fertile  plams,  and  moimtain  peaks  extending  upward  above  the 
line  of  perpetual  snow. 

On  the  western  slope  of  the  Eocky  Momitains,  the  Columbia 
and  other  rivers  of  considerable  magnitude  rise  and  flow  into 
ti^o  Pacific  Ocean  and  Gulf  of  California — all  being  fed  and 
supplied  with  water  bj'  a  system  of  rain  and  snow,  operating 
alike,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  across  the  continent,  varying 
from  twenty  to  sixty  inches  in  depth  during  the  year.  This 
abundant  and  constant  supply  of  moisture,  falling  in  the  shape 
of  rain  or  snow,  most  plentiful  in  hilly  or  mountainous  tracts 
of  country,  goes  to  swell  the  numerous  streams  flowing  onward 
to  the  ocean. 

The  vast  regions  east  of  the  summit  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
range,  extending  from  the  Arctic  Circle  to  the  Tropic  of  Cancer, 
embracing  the  great  valleys  of  Hudson  Bay,  the  Mississippi,  and 
St.  Lawrence,  are  drained  by  noble  rivers  entering  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  Hudson  Bay,  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  on  the  north, 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  south. 

The  Great  Lakes  or  Liland  Seas  of  America,  embraced  in 
this  region,  are  of  themselves  the  largest  and  purest  body  of 
water  on  the  face  of  the  globe,  having  an  estinuxted  area  of 
1)0,000  square  miles  of  surface.  The  three  great  upper  lakes, 
standing  from  505  to  000  feet  above  the  ocean  level,  with  a 
depth  varying  from  100  to  800  feet,  are  surrounded  by  a  healthy 
and  fertile  region  of  country.  The  St.  Lawrence  Eiver,  the 
outlet  of  those  mighty  waters,  flows  northeast  into  the  Gulf  of 


CLIMATE  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


27 


lam 
•er, 
.ml 
■tic 
:th, 

ill 
I  of 
lot" 

s, 
a 

Ibe 
lof 


St.  Lawrence,  by  a  succession  of  falls  and  rapids,  the  most 
remarkable  of  any  stream  on  tlio  face  of  the  j^lobe. 

The  Appalacliian  range  commences  in  Alabama  and  Georgia, 
extending  in  a  northeast  direction  some  one  or  two  himdred 
miles  from  the  Atlantic  coast,  through  the  States  of  South  and 
North  Carohna,  Eastern  Tennessee,  Virginia,  Maryland,  and 
Pennsylvania  to  the  confines  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Here 
the  sj-stcm  is  continued  by  the  "  Highlands,"  and  Taghkanic 
Mountams  of  New  York  and  Massachusets,  when  the  Green 
Mountains  of  Vermont  are  reached,  and  the  water-shed  or  sys- 
tem is  continued  through  Lower  Canada  to  the  District  of 
Gaspr,  teiminatiug  on  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  highest 
peak  of  the  whole  extended  range  is  the  Black  Mountain  in 
North  Carolina,  which  rises  to  an  elevation  of  0,470  feet  above 
the  ocean. 

The  streams  and  navigable  rivers  rising  in  this  mountain 
range,  and  flowing  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  cast,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  south,  are  very  numerous. 

The  AiUrondnvh  or  Clinton  range  of  mountains  lying  in  the 
State  of  New  Y'ork,  extending  from  the  Canada  border  to  the 
M(jhawk  Valley,  are  an  elevated  range,  varying  from  1,000  to 
upwards  of  0,000  feet,  while  the  Catskiil  Momitain  rises  Avest  of 
the  Hudson  River,  forming  an  independent  spm*,  being  elevated 
about  3,000  feet. 

The  Willie  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire  are  an  independent 
group  of  great  interest,  attaining  an  elevation  of  0,428  feet 
above  the  ocean.  The  waters  flowing  from  these  several  moun- 
tains find  their  wav  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  At- 
lantic  Ocean  by  numerous  streams. 

For  a  healthy  climate,  fertile  soil,  riNiilets  and  inland  navi- 
gation, no  stretch  of  country  on  the  globe,  for  the  same  extent 
of  territory,  equals  tlint  lying  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the 
south,  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  on  the  north,  being  drained 
by  the  Appalachian  range  of  mountains  and  hills,  abounding  in 
noble  forests  and  rich  mineral  deposits. 


^"mi 


28 


rNTLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


r  ! 


i 


Great  River  Basins  and  Valleys. 

1.    IncUnal  to  the  Arctic   Ocean. 

j.enyth  in  Miles. 

Mackenzie  River,  ....  1,200 

Sask.'itcliewivn  and  Nelson,  including  Ked 

Hiver  of  the  North,  ....  1,500 


2.  Inclined  to  the  Facijic. 


Frazer  rdvcr, 
Cohimbia 
Sacramento 
Pdo  Colorado, 


450 

1,000 

850 

750 


3.  Indimd  to  the  Atlantic. 

St.  Lawi'encc  River  and  Great  Lakes,  1,500 

Susquehanna  and  Chesapeake  Bay,     .  450 

4.  Inclined  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Mississi})pi  River,        ....  2,000 

Rio  Grande  del  Norte,          .         .         .  1,000 

Tabasco, 250 


Area. 
440,000 

450,000 


80,000 
200,000 

25,000 
170,000 


3C0,000 
20,000 


1,000,000 

180,000 

20,000 


The  lesser  valleys  are  those  of  the  Connecticut,  Hudson, 
Delaware,  Arc,  along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts. 

The  great  basins  and  valleys  modify  the  climate  in  their  dif- 
ferent regions  in  connection  with  prevailing  winds — thus  we 
find  the  valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  in  50^  north  lati- 
tude, comi>arativcly  warmer  than  the  Lower  St.  La\vi'ence  on 
the  same  parallel. 

Mountain  Peaks. 


IIUSSIAN    AMEKICA. 

Mount  St.  Elias,  coast  range 
Mount  Fairweather,  coast  range, 

BRITISH  AMERICA. 

Mount  Brovv-n,  Rocky  Mountains, 
Mount  Hooker,  Rocky  Mountains, 

UNITED   STATES. 


O      f 


Altitude 
in  Fi'ot. 


no       N.  Lat.  10,800 


50 


52  30 
52 


Mount  Hood, 


« 


45  20 
Mount  St.  Helens,*  Cascade  Mountains,      4G  10 

*  Active  volcano. 


ii 


14,783 


10,000 
15,700 


10.500 
15,500 


MOUNTAIN  TExVKS. 


29 


Mount  Eaincr,  Cascade  Mountains, 
Mount  ]3akcr, 
Mount  Adams, 
Mount  Jollrrson,     "  " 

Froiuoiit's  Peak,"'  Eocky  Mountains, 
Sierra  Ncjvada,  California,  {<:sf.)   . 
Mount  Shasta,  " 

Pike's  Peak,  Colorado  Ter., 
Long's  Peak,  " 


40 
48 
40 
44 
4:j 
:w 

41 

38 
40 


40  N. 
40 

30 


30 
30 


VfUrrE  MOUNTAINS,  N.  H. 


Mount  Washington, 
Mount  Adams, 
Mount  Jelierson, 
IMoimt  Madison,  . 
Mount  Monroe,    . 
Mount  Franklin,  . 


44  15 


ADIRONDACK  GROUr,  N^EW  YORK. 


44    10       " 


Mount  Marcy, 

Mount  Mclntyro,         .... 
Mount  Seward, 

Mount  Katahdin,  Maine,     .        .        .        45   45 

Mount  Mansfield,  Green  Mountains,  Vt.,     44   20 

Alleghany    Mountains,    Pennsylvania 
a.nd  Yii-ginia, 


Black  Mountain,  North  Carolina, 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AlilERICA. 

10 


Popocatepetl,  Volcano,  Mexico, 

Orizaba, 

Line  of  perpetual  snow, 

Iztacihuatl,  " 

Tohica, 

Cofro  de  Perote,  Mexico, 

Agua,  Volcano,  Guatemala, 

Amilpas, 

Atitlan,  Volcano, 

Irasu,  " 

Votos, 

Mount  Omoa,  "         Honduras 


a 


15  40     " 

*  Elovateu  1,000  feet  above  tlio  line  of  perpetual  snow. 


1!)   20 
10 


10  45 

14  15 

15  10 


Altittulo 
in  Fi'ut. 

Lat.  14,500 
14,000 
12,000 
12,000 

"  13,570 
12,500 

"  14,500 
12,000 

"   11,500 


0,285 
5,000 
6,800 
5,415 
5,350 
4,850 


3 


35  40  " 


5,407 
5,183 

4,000 

5,335 

4,280 

to  4,200 
0,420 


17,720 
17,500 
14,500 
15,700 
15,108 
13,415 
13,758 
13,100 
12,500 
11,478 
0,848 
7,000 


PART   II. 
ARCTIC   LAxNDS   AND  OCEAN. 


This  is  a  vast  dreary  region,  lying  within  the  Arctic  Circle, 
north  of  the  parallel  of  60 -^  32',  embracing  the  northern  portion 
of  the  Continent  of  America,  including  all  the  nnmcrous  islands 
discovered  near  the  North  Pole  by  English  and  American  navi- 
gators. The  Arctic  Circle  is  one  of  the  smaller  circles  of  the 
sphere,  riiniiing  parallel  with  the  Equator,  and  23^  28'  distant 
from  the  Pole.  In  crossing  North  America,  it  passes  Behring 
Strait,  Great  Bear  Lake  in  British  America,  Back  Biver,  south 
of  the  Magnetic  Pole,  Fox  Channel,  and  Davis  Strait,  striking 
Greenland  at  Holstoinberg,  and  passing  immediately  north  of 
Iceland.  Within  these  bounds  Ue  GrinncU  Land,  Washington 
Land,  Parry  Islands,  Melville  Island,  Prince  of  Wales  Island, 
Prince  Albert's  Land,  King  William's  Land,  Boothia  Felix, 
Cockbum  Land,  and  a  portion  of  the  continent  proper,  together 
with  the  greater  part  of  Greenland. 

The  Arctic  Ocean  lies  within  this  but  partially  explored  re- 
gion, also,  the  open  Polar  Sea,  which  is  supposed  to  exist,  and 
is  now  engaging  the  attention  of  explorers  and  scientific  men, 
both  in  Eui'ope  and  America.  A  portion  of  this  terra  incojnita, 
or  "  Arctic  Highlands,"  is  thus  described  by  Capt.  Boss,  II.  N., 
in  1818,  lying  between  7G^  and  78""  north  latitude,  "  bounded  on 
the  south  by  an  immense  mountain  barrier,  covered  with  ice, 
with  clifl's  1,000  feet  or  upwards  in  height,  and  spurs  of  solid 
ice  projecting  for  miles  uto  the  sea.  The  vegetable  produc- 
tions are  heath,  moss,  and  coarse  grass,  which  afford  shelter  to 
hares  and  other  game."  The  thermometer  in  these  regions, 
during  the  month  of  July,  sometimes  rises  to  40^  and  50^  Fahr., 
and  in  winter  falls  to  50^  and  00°  below  zero,  often  freezing  the 
mercury. 

Dr.  Kane,  of  the  American  Navy,  who  penetrated  as  far 
north  as  81^,  in  185-4,  describes  the  formidable  barriers  of  ice 


!l         )» 


AnCTIC  LANDS  AND  OCEAN. 


31 


and  5now  in  a  still  move  vind  and  dreaiy  form,  lla^ing  seen 
mountnins  of  glaciers  extending  for  many  miles  along  the  north 
coast  of  Greenland,  in  the  vicinity  of  7U°  and  80  north  latitude. 
Here  the  seasons  are  divided  into  six  months  of  daylight  and 
six  months  of  darkness.  It  was  left  for  two  of  his  adventurous 
companions  to  penetrate  to  ahout  81^  20'  north  latitude,  where 
an  open  Polar  Sra  was  discovered  of  vast  extent. 

"VMthin  the  Arctic  Circle  the  only  permanent  human  inhabi- 
tants arc  the  Esquimaux,  a  race  scattered  along  the  coasts  of 
Labrador  and  Hudson  Bay,  and  the  Arctic  shores,  extending 
from  Bchring's  Strait  to  Lancaster  Sound,  and  Greenland ; 
they  are  entirely  dissimilar  in  manners  and  character  to  the 
other  Indian  tribes  of  North  America.  They  are  generally 
locateil  to  the  north  of  the  parallel  of  GS^,  but  are  met  with  as 
far  south  as  52^  north,  in  Labrador.  The  name  which  has 
been  given  them  by  the  Indians  of  the  north,  signifies  "  eaters 
of  raw  flesh."  Their  color  is  not  that  of  copper,  but  approaches 
the  tawny  brown  which  distinguishes  the  inhabitants  of  the 
more  northern  parts  of  Europe.  They  have  beards,  and  some 
of  them  have  been  observed  with  hair  of  different  colors,  in 
some  fair,  in  others  red,  though  the  prevailing  color  is  black. 
These  marks,  by  which  thoy  are  evidently  distinguished  from 
the  American  Indian,  have  inclined  several  savans  to  believe 
that  they  are  of  European  descent.  "  It  is  a  singular  fact  that 
tribes  of  this  description,  agi'ceing  in  form,  features,  and  man- 
ners, and  apparently  of  kindred  race,  occupy  the  whole  shores 
of  the  Polar  Sea  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  One  would 
almost  suppose  that  this  variety  of  the  human  species  had  been 
created  expressly  to  tenant  those  frozen  regions  to  which  their 
mode  of  hfe  appears  to  attach  them,  as  the  Negro  seems  adapted 
b}^  an  opposite  organization  to  the  scorching  heats  of  the  Torrid 
Zone."  The  Esquimaux,  Avhen  first  me<-  by  Captain  Ross's  ex- 
ploring part}'  in  high  latitiides,  supposed  tliemselves  to  be  the 
only  people  in  the  world,  showing  that  thoy  had  lost  all  know- 
ledge of  even  kindred  races  in  other  parts  of  the  globe.  They 
are  lower  in  stature  than  the  other  Indian  races,  as  Avell  as 
Europeans,  if  we  except  the  La])landers.  Their  visage  presents 
the  peculiar  form  which  the  face  assumes  in  intensely  cold 
weather ;  their  dress  is  more  ample  and  prepared  with  more 


^1 


32 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


i     t 


caro  than  is  usual  auioiifj  the  savages.  Tlioy  subsist  mostly  ou 
fish  oud  animal  food,  which  abounds  in  northern  latitudes,  be- 
yond the  limits  of  vegetation. 

"  The  meteorological  phenomena  of  the  Arctic  regions  are  of 
a  higlily  interesting  character.  ]j(>sidcs  the  recurrence  of  (hiy 
and  night  produced  to  a  length  very  different  from  that  which 
is  usually  indicated  by  those  terms,  and  varying  in  propor- 
tion to  tho  latitude,  the  Aurora  I'oreahs  cannot  fail  to  strike 
the  observer  with  Avondtr  and  admiration  during  the  winter 
nights.  These  beautiful  strc^ams  of  light,  forming  or  tending  to 
form  an  irregular  arch,  Avith  '  showers  of  rays'  shooting  in  every 
direction,  brilliant  and  rapid  as  lightning,  supi)ly,  in  some  de- 
gree, the  absence  of  the  sun,  anil  impart  an  air  of  fairyland 
to  the  scene.  They  are  variously  described — by  some  they 
have  been  su]")posed  to  be  attended  Avitli  a  *  hissing  and  crack- 
ing noise  ;'  but  this  has  been  contradicted  by  others.  To  Capt. 
]'arry  tho  light  appeared  to  be  tinged  with  yellow  and  blue  ; 
while  to  Captain  Lyon  it  resembled  the  milky  wa}-  or  vivid 
sheet-lightning.  From  the  observation  of  Captain  Back,  the 
Aurora  Borealis  appears  to  exert  a  sensible  influence  on  the 
magnetic  needle.  The  sun  and  nioon  are  often  surrounded 
here  with  halos  tinted  with  tho  brightest  hues.  Parhelia,  or 
mock  suns,  shine  in  difl'erent  parts  of  tho  firmament,  several 
in  number,  and  most  brilhant  about  the  period  of  sunrise  and 
sunset ;  and  various  luminous  meteors,  duo  probably  to  tho  re- 
fraction of  the  light  by  the  crystals  of  ice,  adorn  at  imcertain 
intervals  tho  northern  sky. 

"Tho  bleak  and  inhospitable  regions  of  the  Frozen  Zone 
teem  with  animal  life  :  tho  whale,  tho  walrus,  and  the  seal  not 
only  afford  light  and  clothing  to  the  inludjitants,  but  invite  the 
adventurous  mariner  of  more  favored  climes  to  visit  these  ice- 
bound coasts.  The  polar  bear,  the  wolf,  and  tlo  fox,  are  the 
antagonists,  tho  dog  and  the  reuideor  are  the  friends  and  coad- 
jutors, the  musk  ox  and  the  elk,  or  moose  deer,  and  hares  of 
various  kinds,  supply  the  principal  nourishment  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. Innumerable  fiocks  of  birds,  the  auk,  the  petrel,  and  the 
gull,  the  swan,  the  goose,  and  the  duck,  tho  tern,  the  plover, 
and  tho  ptarmigan,  animate  tho  air  or  tho  waters;  and  the 
spring  and  summer  are  cheered  with  the  notes  of  many  song 
birds.  Bisect  species  are  few ;  but  in  the  short  and  sudden 
r.uramer  even  mosquitoes  are  found.  The  vegetable  world  is 
likewise  very  limited.  Tho  American  spruce  or  white-pine  is 
said  by  Dr.  Richardson  to  be  '  the  only  tree  that  the  Esqui- 
maux of  the  Arctic  Sea  have  access  to  while  gi'owing.'  They 
are  chiefly  supplied  by  drift-wood.    The  mosses  and  the  lichens 


THE  MAGNETIC   POLE. 


33 


song 


are  the  principal  products  of  tho  soil.  There  arc  mushrooms, 
ferns,  algip,  and  coufervio.  Tho  summer  is  not  wholly  destitute 
of  tho  ranunculus,  tho  anemone,  and  tho  poppy,  tho  strawberry, 
tlie  raspl)(>rry,  and  some  other  edible  fruits.  Tho  Proturo'vii.s 
iitvalis,  a  minute  cryptogamie  ])hint,  imi)arts  a  general  rosy  ting(\ 
which  has  occasioned  tho  iucousistent  api)ellation  of  red  snow." 
— Enylish  0(t':<'tla;r.'" 

The  general  character  of  the  climate  in  thoso  regions  is  that 
of  intense  cold,  ranginj,'  so  low  as  50^  beloiv  zero,  or  even  niucli 
lower.  In  a  journal  kei)t  by  (Japtain  Back,  at  Fort  Keliance, 
north  latitude  i)2^  50',  the  thermometer  is  rcv^ordcd  to  have 
stood  at  70'^  below  zero.  It  has  been  observed  that  tho  extromo 
point  of  cold,  as  indicated  by  tho  thormomotor,  is  often  less 
severely  felt  in  these  noiihoru  latitudes  than  in  a  more  moder- 
ate temperature  ;  tho  air  in  such  circumstances  being  calm  and 
clear. 

The  Magnetic  Pole. 

It  may  gratify  our  readers  to  give  the  result,  in  a  sim])le  and 
plain  manner,  of  Captain  Ross's  attempt  to  reach  and  discover 
the  Muijnedc  Pole,  where  is  supposed  to  l)e  found  tho  greatest 
degree  of  cold  on  the  earth's  surface ;  "  Tlio  place  of  observa- 
tion," ho  says,  "  was  as  near  tho  Magnetic  Pole  as  tlie  limited 
means  which  I  had  enabled  me  to  determine.  Tlio  amount  of 
the  dip  was  89-'  51)',  being  within  one  minute  of  tlio  vcrluxil, 
while  the  proximity  of  the  Pole,  if  not  its  actual  existence 
where  wo  stood,  was  further  conlirmed  by  tho  total  inaction  of 
tho  several  horizontal  needles  in  my  possession.  These  were 
suspended  in  tho  most  delicate  manner  possible,  but  not  one 
showed  the  least  effort  to  move  from  the  position  it  was  in — a  fact, 
which  tho  most  uninformed  on  the  subject  must  know,  jiroves 
that  tho  centre  of  attraction  lies  at  a  very  small  horizontal  dis- 
tance, if  at  any."  Captain  Iloss  proceeds  to  state,  "that  a 
learned  professor  in  England  had,  in  the  al)sence  of  tlie  expedi- 
tion, laid  down  all  tho  curves  of  equal  variation  to  within  a  few 
donees  of  tlio  point  of  concurrence,  leaving  that  point  of  course 
to  be  determined  by  oljservation,  should  tho  observation  over 
faU  within  tho  pov»'or  of  navigators.  It  was  most  gratifying  on 
our  ret'n-n  to  iind  that  the  place  I  had  fixed  upon  Avas  precisely 
tho  one  whore  these  curves  should  have  coincided  in  a  centre, 
had  they  been  protracted  on  his  magnetic  chart." 

"  A  few  days  after,  and  on  returning  to  their  more  permanent 
station.  Captain  Ross  examined  his  instruments,  and  his  experi- 
ments served  to  convince  him  that  his  observations  on  tho  celo- 


Ill  III 


84 


INTLUENCE  OF  CLIMATT:. 


bratod  spot  woro  oorroct.  Tho  theory  previonftly  adopted  wart, 
that  tho  ])lace  of  tho  Magnetic  Polo  wa«  at  70  north  hititude, 
and  98^  80'  45"  west  h)nf^itudo ; — and  the  spot  wlicre  Captain 
lloss  Kiipposes  it,  is  70 -^  5'  17"  north  Lititude,  and  90'  4()'  45" 
west  longitude.  A  Committee  of  the  Admiralty,  to  whom  Capt. 
Ross'  narrative  and  statement  was  snbmittcHl,  rciported  (among 
other  things)  that  "  they  have  no  reason  to  donbt  that  Captain 
IlosH  actually  r(>ached  the  Magnetic  Pole." 

As  to  the  Magnetic  Pole,  or  the  substance  which  produces 
tho  phenomena  of  the  magnetic  needle,  some  suppose  "that 
there  an?  gi'evt  magnets  in  the  earth,  which  move  periodically." 
Professor  Stoinliausor  was  of  opinion  "that  an  interior  planet 
revolved  around  the  centre  of  the  earth  onco  in  440  years,  and 
produced  tho  magnetic  eifc^cts  at  the  surface."  Prof.  Sander 
contended  these  phenomena  arc  to  bo  ascribed  to  a  magnetic 
planet  beyond  the  newly  discovered  planet  Hersch*;!,  or  Uranus, 
performing  its  revolution  in  1,7'20  yora-s.  Truly,  the  subject 
requires  further  explanation ! 

Appoarance  of  the  Sun  from  the  Norch  Pole. 

To  a  person  standing  at  the  North  Pole,  the  sun  appears  to 
sweep  hoi-izontally  around  the  sky  every  twenty-four  Lours, 
without  any  perce))til)lo  variation  during  its  circiiit  in  its  dis- 
tance fi-om  the  horizon.  On  the  21st  of  June  it  is  23'^  28'  above 
the  horizon — a  little  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  distance  to 
the  zenith,  tho  highest  point  that  it  ever  reaches.  From  this 
altitude  it  slowly  descends,  its  track  being  represented  by  a 
spiral  or  screw  with  a  very  line  thread  ;  and  in  the  course  of 
three  mouths  it  worms  its  way  down  to  the  horizon,  which  it 
reach(>s  on  the  23<1  of  September.  On  this  day  it  slowly  sweeps 
around  the  sky,  with  its  face  half  hidden  below  the  icy  sea.  It 
still  continues  to  descend,  and  after  it  has  entirely  disappeared, 
it  is  then  so  near  the  horizon  that  it  carries  a  bright  twilight 
around  the  heavens  in  its  daily  circuit.  As  the  sun  sinks  lower 
and  lower,  this  twiUght  gradually  grows  fainter,  till  it  fades 
away.  On  the  20th  of  December,  the  sun  is  23""  28'  below  the 
horizon,  and  this  is  the  midnight  of  the  dark  Avinter  of  the 
Pole  From  this  date  tho  sun  begins  to  ascend  ;  and  after 
a  time  his  return  is  heralded  l)y  a  faint  dawn,  which  circles 
slowly  around  the  horizon,  completing  its  circuit  every  twenty- 
four  hours.  This  dawn  grows  gradually  brighter ;  and  on  tho 
20th  of  March  the  peaks  of  ice  are  gilded  with  the  first  level 
rays  of  the  six  months'  day.  The  ])ringor  of  this  long  day  con- 
tinues to  wind  his  spiral  way  upward,  till  he  reaches  his  highest 
l)]ace  on  the  21st  of  June,  and  his  annual  coui'sc  is  completed. 
Such  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  works  of  God. 


I 


CLIMATE  OF  GREENLAND. 


Climate  of  Greenland. 


85 


this 

by  a 

of 

[i  it 


light 

ower 

ades 

the 

the 

ifter 

■c'les 

nty- 

tho 

cvel 


Greenland,  the  iiiost  northora  country  of  the  Western  Hemis- 
phere of  the  globe,  lying  1)etween  Iceland  and  the  American 
Continent,  reaches,  as  far  us  the  land  is  discovered,  from  Cape 
Farewell,  in  latitude  5iP  49'  to  the  80th  piirallcl  of  north  lati- 
tude ;  further  than  that,  it  has  been  found  unapproachable 
toward  the  northeast  by  reason  of  an  immense  barrier  of  ice 
stretching  along  the  coast.  The  intrepid  Dr.  Kane  has  explored 
the  farthest  in  this  direction,  when  on  his  last  expedition  in 
search  of  an  open  Pouir  Sea. 

"  The  whole  coast  of  Greenland,  receiving  the  beams  of  the 
sun  in  a  very  oblique  direction,  is  dei)rived  of  that  genial 
warmth  which  most  other  parts  of  the  earth  enjoy.  The  soil 
being  shallow,  is  frozen  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and 
the  ice  having  taken  joossession  of  all  the  valleys  of  this  l)arren 
and  rocky  land,  the  winds  which  blow  over  these  are,  even  in 
summer,  extremely  cold.  The  climate  on  the  east  coast  of 
Greenland,  however,  is  undoubtedly  more  severe  than  on  the 
west,  where  are  to  be  found  its  only  inhabitants.*  Snow  falls 
in  an  extraordinary  quantity  everywhere  along  the  east  coast, 
causing  the  glaciers  witli  which  the  land  is  covered  to  increase 
perpetuall}',  the  loose  snow  upon  the  siirface  melting  when  it 
chances  to  thaw,  and  pressing  down  upon  the  strata  below,  or 
sinking  through  it,  till  the  Avhole  iK'comes  one  solid  mass  of  ice, 
which  never  melts  or  undergoes  change,  until,  in  lapse  of  time, 
possibly  not  until  some  centuries  pass  by,  it  yields  to  the  vast 
superincumbent  pressure,  and  is  precipitated  into  the  sea  in  the 
form  of  icebergs.  The  winds  which  blow  directly  along  the 
coast  of  Greenland  from  the  sea,  or  Davis'  Strait,  are  moist,  and 
generally  attended  with  rain,  and  in  winter  with  snow  and  sleet, 
and  are  more  boisterous  in  spring  and  autumn  than  in  other 
seasons.  Strong  stormy  winds  from  the  west  or  southwest 
always  break  the  sea-ice,  evc^n  in  the  middle  of  Avinter.  The 
severe  cold  sets  in  with  the  month  of  January,  but  it  is  accom- 
panied with  little  snow,  which  generally  falls  either  before  or 

*  In  regard  to  diseases  prevalent  in  northern  latitudes,  a  late  writer  remarks : 
"  There  are  some  regions  of  tlie  globe  which  enjoy  a  conii)leto  immunity  from 
consumption  ;  such  regions  are  generally  situated  in  a  high  latitude,  and.  indeed, 
we  find,  in  proixirtion  to  the  intensity  and  long  continuance  of  cold,  a  propor- 
tionate decnuise  in  the  amount  of  consumption.  In  Iceland,  from  1837  to  1837, 
there  was  not  a  single  case,  and,  according  to  a  writ(  r  who  has  made  the  diseases 
of  that  country  his  study,  it  is  entirely  unknown,  T'.iose  who  have  passed  along 
time  also  in  Greenland,  and  along  the  coast  of  Labrador,  state  that  they  had 
never  known  among  the  Esquimaux  a  single  case  of  consimiption,  and  that  cii- 
tarrhal  and  bronchial  affections  are  almost  unknown." 


rmh 


36 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


!|      'I 


i 


I 
I     I 


after  that  time.  More  snow  falls  in  the  south  than  in  the  north. 
Of  all  the  atmospheric  phenomena  peciihar  to  this  country,  the 
Anrnra  Borcalis  is  the  most  beautiful.  It  streams  here  with 
peculiar  lustre,  and  with  a  variety  of  colors,  Avhich,  ha\-ing 
great  brilliancj',  sometimes  till  the  whole  horizon  Avith  the  most 
beautiful  tints  of  the  rainbow.  It  Ls  more  fiequent  and  more 
powerful  from  the  GOth  to  the  OTth  parallel  than  in  higher 
latitudes. 

"  Although  Greenland  aflFords  a  great  variety  of  objects  to  the 
mineralogist,  yet  it  offers  but  few  to  the  botanist,  as  compared 
Avith  other  countries ;  vegetation  being  here  repressed  by  the 
barrenness  of  the  soil,  and  the  wiint  of  the  sun's  genial  influence. 
Those  trees  and  shrubs,  therefore,  Avhich  in  milder  climating 
afford  a  comfortable  shadt^  to  the  wanderer,  creep,  in  this  forlorn 
land,  under  scattered  rocks,  to  find  shelter  from  the  storm,  snow 
and  ice.  There  are  a  series  of  plants,  however,  which  probably 
could  not  subsist  in  a  milder  chmate  ;  and  in  tlie  ulterior  of  the 
inlets  and  firths  may  be  found  many  species  hitherto  unknown 
in  other  countries.  There  are  spots  which  even  boast  a  luxuri- 
ant verdure,  but  they  are  only  such  places  as,  being  in  the 
neighborhood  of  dwellings,  have  been  improved  for  many  years 
by  the  blood  and  fat  of  seals  and  other  animals.  Vegetation 
commences  very  late  in  Greenland,  not  till  the  end  of  May  or 
June,  in  projiortion  to  the  different  latitudes,  and  is  over  by  the 
end  of  August  or  September.  The  bottcu  of  the  sea  in  these 
climates  appears  to  be  better  suittnl  to  vegetation  than  the  sur- 
face of  the  land,  presenting  a  great  variety  of  fuci,  ulva),  and 
confervie. 

"  Among  the  marine  animals  the  whale  tribe  is  here  very  con- 
spicuous. The  porpoise,  the  sword-fish,  and  the  narwal,  or 
sea-uniconi,  frequently  appear  on  the  Greenland  coast.  Various 
tjpecies  of  S(>al  inhabit  the  surrounding  seas,  and  are  of  immense 
importance  to  the  inhabitants  in  supplying  them  with  food  and 
clothing,  as  well  as  with  various  articles  useful  in  their  simple 
arts  and  domestic  economy." — Etyjlinlt  Gar.dtcer. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  southern  part  of  Green- 
land is  probably  from  20-^  to  30^  Fahr. ;  but  the  difference  be- 
tween the  highest  and  the  lowest  temperatures  (131^)  is  perhaps 
without  a  parallel.  In  July,  tlie  thermometer  sometimes  stands 
as  high  as  84°^  even  in  the  shade,  while  in  January  it  often  sinks 
as  low  as  40^^  below  zero.  July  is  the  only  month  in  the  year 
in  which  no  snow  falls ;.  but  tlie  seas  do  not  usually  begin  to 
freeze  till  December. 


TEMPERATURE  WITHIN  THE  ARCTIC  CIRCLE. 


37 


I  nortli. 
.ry,  the 
•c  "with 


East  Coast  of  Greenland. 

Captain  W.  A.  Graah,  of  the  Danish  Eoyal  Navy,  who  win- 
tered at  Nukarbik,  no'-th  lat.,  Cli^  22'  west  long.,  4o^  50'  from 
Greenwich,  r'cmarks  :  "  The  climate  on  the  east  coast  of  Green- 
land is  undoubtedly  somewhat  more  severe  than  on  the  west. 
The  summer  of  1829  began  late,  and  })assed  away  without  a 
singles  day  that  could  properly  bo  called  warm.  As  early  as 
the  close  of  August,  the  sea  was  every  night  covered  with  a 
crust  of  new  ice,  Avhich,  by  sunrise,  attained  such  a  thickness 
that  it  Avaa  no  easy  matter,  nay,  sometimes  impossible,  to  break 
through  it  with  the  oars  ;  and  by  the  middle  of  S<.!pteud)or  ill 
the  bay  and  filths  were  covered  witli  sheet-ice  from  an  inch  to 
two  inches  thick.  The  winter  of  1828-9  had  l»een,  it  Avas  said, 
nnusually  mild,  and  yet  the  winter  ice  lay  still  undissolved, 
when  the  new  ice  began  to  form.  Towards  the  end  of  October 
sledging  and  hunting  on  the  ice  was  in  full  train,  and  in  Novem- 
ber and  Pocember  there  were  severtU  davs  from  eight  to  ten 
degrees  of  cold.  Subsequently,  indeed,  and  until  the  close  of 
February,  the  weather  was  particularly  mild  ;  but  at  that  date, 
it  again  became  severe,  and  the  cold  increased  to  as  much  as 
IG"  or  17"  Ilc'aumer :  —4'^  or  — G=  of  Fahr." 


ireen- 
ice  be- 
orhaps 
stands 
n  sinks 


jgin  to 


Temperature  •within  the  Arctic  Circle. 

Yfarlt  TEMPEiiATunE  of  Rensselaer  Harbor  in  north  latitude 
78°  37',  west  longitude  70^^  40'  from  Greenwich,  being  the  win- 
ter quarters  of  the  brig  liesciic,  under  the  command  of  Dr.  Kane, 
in  1853-54^55. 


Montha. 

Mean  Ti'mp. 

Mont'ia 

Moxin  Temp. 

^  Fnhr. 

"•  Falir. 

January, . 

29.42 

July, 

.      +38.40 

February, 

27.40 

Aiigust,  . 

,     +31.35 

March,    . 

2G.03 

September, 

.     +13.48 

April, 

.    —11.30 

October,  . 

5.00 

May, 

.     +12.89 

Novemljer, 

23.02 

June, 

,     +29.33 

December, 

29.50 

Yearly  Mean  Temperature,  3.22°  below  zero. 


FOUR  SEASONS. 

—11.48°     Autumn, 


Spring,    .   •     . 

Summer,  .        .  +33^     Winter, 

Warmest  dty,  July  4,  1854, 
Coldest  day,  February  5,  1854,  . 


.      —4.85'^ 
.    —29.50° 

53.9°  Fahr. 
-08° 


■«,-jj' 

I 


;    i 


HBBBB 


**«,i 


88 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Summer  and  Winter  Temperature. 

Siaiions  on  the  West  Coast  of  Greenland. 


Stations. 

N.  Lat. 

Slim.  Temp. 
•  Falir. 

Win.  Temp. 

Differ- 
ence. 

o             ' 

°  Fahr. 

°  Fahr. 

Rensselaer  Harbor, 

78  37 

33 

29.6 

G2.6 

Wostenholm,      .     . 

7G  33 

38 

—28.7 

GG.7 

Upernavik,     .     .     . 

72  48 

35.2 

12.5 

47.7 

Omenak,     .         .     , 

70  41 

40.7 

5.1 

45.8 

Jacobsbaven,      .     . 

69  12 

42.4 

+  0.8 

41.6 

Slat 

ions  West  of  Baffiits  Bi 

UJ. 

Melville  Island, 

74  47 

37 

28.2 

65.3 

Assistance  Bay, 

74  40 

35.9 

26.7 

62.6 

Port  Bowen,       ,     . 

73   14 

37 

25.1 

62.1 

Bootbia  Felix,   .    . 

00   50 

38 

27.7 

65.7 

Igloolik,         .     .     , 

GO  21 

35.2 

21.3 

56.5 

Fort  Hope,    .     .    . 

G7  25 

30.7 

—25.1 

64.8 

Winterinsel,       .     . 

GO  11 

35.1 

20.5 

55.6 

Fort  Franklin,   .     . 

G5  12 

50.2 

17. 

67.2 

1. — Meteorological  Austract  kept  on  board  Her 
Sliip  "  Investigator,"  Captain  McClure>  wintering 
Mercy — nortli  latitude  74^  6',  west  longitude  117^ 


Months— 1851. 

September, 
October, 
November, . 
December, . 
January,  1852, 
February,   . 


Mean  Temp. 
"  Fahr. 
+  24.4 

+  3.4 
—14.6 
—20.0 
—27.2 

—25.0 


Months— 1853. 

Marcli, 
April, 
May,  . 
June,  . 
July    . 
August, 


Majesty's 
in  Bay  of 
12'. 

Mean  Temp. 
"  Fahr. 

—28.4 
—  1.3 
+  10.2 
+  31.5 
+  36.7 
+  33.2 


Mean  Annual  Temperature,  1.8^  Fahr. 


2. — Meteorological  Abstract  kept  on  board  Her  Majesty's 
Shin  "  Resolute,"  wintering  in  Bridj^ort  Inlet,  Mehille  Island 
—north  latitude  74^^  50',  west  longitude  108^  48'. 


Months — 1852.                Mean  Tcniji. 

Months— 1853. 

Mean  Temp. 

"  Falir. 

°  Fahr. 

September, 

.   +10.2 

March, 

.  -10.0 

October, 

+  0.6 

Apiil, 

.  —  2.5 

November, . 

.      10.2 

May,  . 

.  +  2.0 

December, . 

26.0 

June,  . 

.  +21.0 

January,  1853,    . 

—40.7 

July,   .         . 

.  +36.4 

Febmary,  . 

33.2 

August, 

.  +33.1 

Mean  Annual  Temperature,  Zero. 


TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  ARCTIC  SEA. 


39 


.0 
.5 


Temperature  of  tlie  Arcvic  Sea. 
Table  I. — Showing  the  Temperatures  of  the  Sea  at  the  Surface, 
and  at  various  Depths,  from  Mr.  Scoresby's  Observations. 


B'jiow  the  Surface. 

Temperature  at 

Surface. 

Temperature. 

No.  Fathoms. 

°  Fahr. 

31  °  Fahr. 

31 

33.8 

13 

37 

3^.5 
36 

57 
100 

-Inlat.  79^  N. 

(( 

36 

400 

(( 

37 

730 

. 

29.7 

36.3 

120 

In  lat.  80'  N. 

32 

38 

760 

In  lat.  78^  N. 

Table  II. — Comparisons  of  Temperature  of  the  Sea  at  Depths, 
and  at  the  Surface,  from  Experiments  made  by  the  Expedition 
under  Captain  David  Buchan,  .U.  N.,  in  1818,  between  lati- 
tudes 79^  45'  N.,  and  80^  27'  N. 


Below  the  Surface. 

Date. 

Temperature 
at  Surface. 

Variation. 

181S 

Temperature. 

No.  of  Fathoms. 

°  Fahr. 

°  Fahr. 

°  Fahr. 

July, 

34 

34.5 

35 

.5 

33 

34 

60 

1 

32 

36.7 

73 

4.7 

31 

35.6 

83 

4.6 

32 

36 

94 

4 

31.5 

36.5 

103 

5 

30.5 

36 

120 

5 

30.5 

36.5 

142 

6 

32.5 

36.5 

173 

4 

32.5 

36.5 

185 

4 

31.5 

37 

237 

5.5 

32 

36 

330 

4 

May, 

33 

43 

700 

10 

These  result.s  show  an  increase  of  temperature  with  an  increase 
of  depth,  in  the  latter  observation,  making  a  difference  of  10^ 
Fahrenheit. 


i 
t 
I 


PABT    III. 
THE  COLD   ZONE   OF  AMERICA. 


The  second  climatic  division  of  America,  or  tlie  Cold  Zone, 
lies  mostly  between  the  50fcli  and  GOtli  degrees  north  latitude, 
embracing  Labrador,  the  central  portion  of  British  America,  and 
most  of  Eussian  America,  where  is  to  bo  found  the  widest  part 
of  the  American  Continent,  running  through  upwards  of  one 
hundred  degrees  of  longitude.  This  immense  region,  wliich  is 
sparsely  populated  by  Indians  and  Europeans  in  the  employ  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company  and  Russian  Fur  Company,  has  a 
mean  annual  temperature  ranging  from  20  to  4.2  degrees 
Fahrenheit — being  subject,  for  the  mos^  part,  to  killing  frosts 
during  every  month  of  the  year;  yet  still  wheat  and  other 
cereals,  and  hardy  vegetables  come  to  perfection  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lake  Winnipeg,  the  Saskatchewan  country,  and  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie Piiver,  as  far  north  as  the  GOtli  parallel  of  latitude ;  the 
summer  mouths  in  this  section  have  a  mean  temperature  of  GO' 
Fahr(mheit,  and  upwards,  with  an  abundance  o''  rain,  while  the 
winter  months  are  excessively  cold  and  dry.  On  the  northern 
limit  of  this  cold  belt,  the  subsoil  is  permanently  frozen,  and 
vegetation  becomes  dwarfed,  or  entirely  disappears. 

Land  in  the  greater  part  of  this  region  may  be  said  to  lie 
almost  valueless  for  agricultural  purposes  ;  the  forests,  the 
mines,  the  fur-bearing  animals,  and  the  fisheries,  affording  the 
only  rehablo  means  of  support  to  the  inhabitants,  made  w]}  of 
Indians,  half-breeds,  and  Europeans.  These  people  do  not  as- 
pire to  maintain  a  separate  national  organization,  but  content 
themselves  by  being  ruled  by  the  governors  and  agents  of  Brit- 
ish and  Kussian  chartered  companies,  who  have  here  hold  sway 
for  some  two  hundred  years. 

The  climate,  throughout  the  v,  05510111  portion  of  this  country, 
is  remarkable  for  its  healthy  and  iuvigorating  influence,  being 
in  a  great  degree  free  from  pidmonary  complaints  and  fevers  of 


:1 


RUSSIAN  AMERICA. 


41 


every  type.  Like  Northern  Russia,  in  time,  no  doubt,  much  of 
this  country  will  bo  rcclaimetl,  and  found  capable  of  sustaining 
a  hardy  and  dense  population :  the  lumber  trade,  the  mines 
and  fisheries  being  of  themselves  an  inexhaustible  source  of 
wealth  to  the  white  race,  while  the  Indian  will  follow  his  favor- 
ite pursuit  of  the  chase,  and  furnish  rich  furs,  which  are  foiiud 
in  all  cold  regions. 

Russian  America. 

This  is  an  extensive  and  little  kno^vll  region,  forming  the 
northwest  portion  of  the  Continent  of  America,  running  north 
of  latitude  54^  40',  to  Behring  Strait  and  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
Being  mostly  valuable  for  its  fur-bearing  animals,  and  having 
early  attracted  the  notice  of  the  Russian  navigators,  it  was  taken 
possession  of  by  the  Russian  Government,  as  well  as  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands,  lying  in  the  sea  which  divides  Asia  fi-om  North 
America. 


((  r 


That  part  of  the  continent  comprehended  under  the  name 
of  Russian  America  is  generally  of  a  very  alpine  and  sterile  ap- 
pearance. The  celebrated  mountain  of  St.  Elias,  which  is  prob- 
ably a  volcanic  peak,  is  calculated  to  have  an  elevation  of  l(j,8(J0 
feet,  while  other  peaks  and  ranges  rise  to  10,000  feet  and  up- 
Avards.  Between  the  foot  of  the  mountains  and  the  sea  extends 
a  strip  of  low  land,  the  soil  of  which  is  almost  everywhere  a 
black  and  marshy  earth,  only  calculated  for  producing  coarse 
though  numerous  mosses,  short  grasses,  a  few  vaccinias,  and 
other  small  plants.  Some  of  these  marshes  on  the  side  of  the 
hills  retain  the  water  like  a  sponge,  while  their  verdure  makes 
them  appear  to  be  solid  ground ;  but  in  attempting  to  pass 
them,  the  traveller  sinks  up  to  the  mid-leg.  Nevertheless,  the 
pine  and  other  trees  ac(|uire  a  large  size  on  this  gloomy  soil. 
Next  to  the  fir,  the  most  common  species  of  tree,  is  that  of  the 
alder ;  but  in  many  places  on  the  rocks  the  vegetation  is  con- 
fined to  dAvarf  trees  and  slipbs.  The  proximity  of  mountams 
covered  Avitli  eternr.l  snow,  and  the  extent  of  the  American  Con- 
tinent in  the  latitude  of  58~^,  render  the  climate  northward  ex- 
cessively cold  and  inimical  to  vegetation." 

"  Aliaska,  or  Alashka,  is  a  long  peninsula  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  America,  runnuig  out  in  a  soutlnvest  direction  from  the 
continent  into  Behring  Sea.  It  chiefly  consists  of  a  ridge  of 
steep  rocks,  Avhich,  in  some  parts,  attain  a  great  elevation,  and 
has  an  average  breadth  of  fifteen  or  twenty  miles,  while  its 
length,  if  measured  fi-om  the  head  of  Cook's  Inlet,  exceeds  400 


ii! 


1  ! 


I,  I 


I 


42 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


miles.  Tliat  division  of  the  Aleutian  chain,  eallccl  the  Fox 
Islands,  commences  at  its  western  extremity,  a  very  narrow 
channel  here  dividing  the  volcanic  Island  of  Unimak,  which 
rises  to  an  altitude  of  8,083  feet,  from  the  extremity  of  the  pen- 
insula. This  gi-eat  uninterrupted  sea-wall,  as  it  may  be  termed, 
with  its  insular  continuation  in  the  Aleutian  range,  prevents  ice 
brought  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  down  the  large  rivers  which 
discharge  themselves  into  the  Sea  of  Behring,  from  flowing  into 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean ;  v;hilo  the  accumulation  of  ice  on  the 
former  sea  absorbs  a  large  proportion  of  the  heat  of  the  atmos- 
phei'e.  Hence  navigators,  in  passing  from  the  Pacific  into  the 
Sea  of  Behring,  seldom  fail  to  remark  a  gTcat  change  of  tempera- 
ture ;  and  while  all  the  coast  to  the  southeast  of  the  peninsula  is 
clad  with  dense  forests  of  noble  timber,  on  that  of  the  northwest 
only  a  few  stunted  shrubs  are  seen.  The  Island  of  Kadiak, 
sheltered  from  the  Arctic  influences  by  the  peninsula,  has  an 
abundance  of  timber ;  while  the  Aleutian  Islands,  though  seve- 
ral degrees  further  south,  have  not  a  single  tree  ;  and  the  dif- 
ference in  the  animal  is  as  striking  as  in  the  vegetable  world  on 
the  two  sides  of  the  peninsula.  On  the  one  we  find  the  walrus, 
on  the  other  the  humming-bu'd  ;  and  while  the  ice-fox  is  often 
met  with  on  the  Aleutian  Islands,  it  has  never  been  encountered 
at  Kadiak." 

Sitka,  Russian  America,  is  a  largo  island,  eighty  miles  in 
length,  and  from  ten  to  twenty  miles  in  breadth,  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  the  narrow  inlet  of  Norfolk  Sound.  Here  is 
situated  the  principal  settlement  of  the  Russian  American  Com- 
pany, called  New  Archangel,  in  north  latitude  57^  3',  Avest  longi- 
tude 135°  18'.  It  was  formerly  called  Sitka.  The  mean  tem- 
perature for  the  year  at  Ncav  Archangel  is  about  42°  Fahrenheit, 
sjjring  40°,  summer  54°,  autumn  44°,  and  winter  32°  Fahrenheit. 
This  is  about  the  same  mean  annual  temperature  as  Quebec, 
about  10°  south,  and  Bergen  in  Norway,  5°  north. 

The  climate  of  Russian  America  is  described  as  very  humitl, 
especially  on  the  southwest  coast  and  Sitka  Island.  At  the  latter 
place,  Wrangell  fomid,  in  1828,  that  only  sixty-six  days  were 
dry  in  the  whole  year,  while  for  128  days  rain  fell  without  inter- 
mission. Snow  was  frequent,  but  did  not  last  long.  The  tem- 
perature, though  warmer  than  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  is 
considerabl}'  more  severe  than  in  con-esponding  latitudes  on  the 
western  coast  of  the  Old  World :  for  example,  whUe  the  mean 


•t:' 


BRITISH  AMERICA. 


43 


aiinuul  temperature  at  Sitka,  is  42°  FaLr.,  at  Bergen,  in  Nor- 
way, it  is  47.° 

Tlie  soU  is  generally  sterile  ;  grain  crops  refuse  to  gi'ow,  except 
in  the  Sitka  archipelago,  and  the  adjacent  coast  of  the  main- 
land, ■where  a  Uttlo  barley,  rye,  and  oats  are  raised.-* 

British  America. 

This  vast  region,  exclusive  of  Canada  and  the  other  provinces 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  extends  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean  along  the  parallel  of  the  49th  degree  north  latitude  to 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  near  the  centre  of  the  continent,  thence 
to  the  mouth  of  Pigeon  River,  near  the  head  of  Lake  Superior, 
in  about  48^  north  latitude.  From  thence,  in  a  north  and  north- 
easterly direction,  along  the  water-shed  that  divides  the  waters 
flowing  into  Hudson  Bay  fi-om  the  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  to  the  coast  of  Labrador,  striking 
the  Atlantic  on  about  the  50th  j^arallel  of  latitude,  forming  an 
extended  line  of  about  4,000  miles  in  length  from  ocean  to  ocean. 
The  Arctic  Ocean  forms  its  northern  boundary,  and  thus  it  is 
bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  gi'catest  oceans  of  the  globe, 
while  Hudson  Bay  and  Strait  form  an  inland  sea  of  gi"cat 
magnitude. 

This  region  includes  all  the  country  lying  between  the  meri- 
dians of  So-"  and  141°  west  longitude,  excepting  a  strip  of  Rus- 
sian America  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between  54°  40'  and  G0° 
north  latitude,  where  stands  Mount  St.  Ehas.  The  dividing 
line  between  the  Russian  and  British  Possessions  runs  duo 
north  from  that  point  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  terminating  on  about 
the  70th  degi'eo  of  north  latitude.  From  south  to  north  it  ex- 
tends through  upwards  of  twenty-one  degrees  of  latitude,  or 


*  The  Russo- American  Teleghapii  Expedition.— 77ie  Alta  California,  of 
October  20,  18G5,  publishes  the  following;  concerning  Kussian  America  :  "Col. 
Bulkier  reports  that  the  livcr  laid  down  on  the  map  as  the  Kwichpak,  in  Rus- 
sian America,  is  identical  with  the  Youcan,  and  is  navifrablo  for  small  vessels  as 
far  as  English  Fork.  A  party  was  sent  to  explore  the  Youcan  and  Kwichpak  in 
a  small  steamer.  They  will  proceed  to  the  head  of  navigation,  and  then  cross 
with  reindeer  or  on  foot  over  the  ice  and  snow,  until  they  strike  the  settlements 
in  British  Columbia.  Colonel  Bulkley's  party  found  the  earth,  on  the  American 
side,  thawed  to  an  average  depth  of  ten  inches,  but  frozen  solid  below  to  an  un- 
known depth.  On  their  arrival  in  September,  the  country  on  the  American 
shore  was  rolling  and  breaking,  but  it  is  not  high,  and  was  destitute  of  timber. 


.M 


44 


INFLUENCE  OF  CIJMATE. 


Iflp! 


! 


it  I 


about  1,500  miles,  and  contains  an  estimated  area  of  3,000,000 
square  miles. 

Canada  proper  claims  all  the  territory  drained  by  the  waters 
flowing  into  the  Groat  Lakes  and  the  St.  liawrcnce  Eiver,  north 
of  the  [Jiiitod  States  boundary  as  defined  by  treaty. 

The  cliinafe  of  this  iinnienso  coiintry  is,  for  the  most  pai-t, 
cold  and  forbidding,  with  the  exception  of  Vancouv(n''s  Island, 
Queen  Charlotte's  Island,  and  other  islands  which  lie  oil"  the 
main  coast  of  British  America,  between  the  48th  and  55th  de- 
giTes  of  north  latitude,  having  a  front  of  about  450  miles  on  tlio 
North  Pacific  Ocean.  These  islands  possess  a  genial  and 
healthy  climate,  good  soil,  and  aro  said  to  be  rich  in  mineral 
productions. 

The  shores  along  tlio  mainland,  and  inland  to  the  Eocky 
Mountain  range,  embracing  New  Caledonia,  are  alike  favored 
as  regards  climate  and  the  productions  of  the  earth  ;  here  1  oing 
recently  discovered  largo  and  valuable  gokl  Jields,  which  aro 
attracting  gi'eat  attention,  and  filhng  the  country  with  a  hardy 
and  industrious  class  of  inhabitants.  This  portion  of  Brit- 
ish America,  as  well  as  Washington  Tcn'itory,  north  of  the 
Columbia  Biver,  affords  pure  water,  pure  air,  and  a  fruitful 
soil,  vdih.  rich  mineral  productions,  possessing  all  the  require- 
ments in  order  to  sustain  civilized  hfe  in  ease  and  comfort. 

The  Saskatchewan  region,  embracing  the  Assinniboine  and 
Red  Biver  valleys,  and  the  shores  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  together 
wiili  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  Bainy  Lake,  is  all  alike  a  fine 
region  of  country,  producing  grasses,  cereals,  and  vegetable 
])roductions  in  great  abundance  and  of  excellent  quality. 

All  the  above  enumerated  regions,  being  about  one-fourth  of 
British  America,  is  capable  of  sustaining  a  dense  and  hardy 
population.  The  chmate  and  soil  being  in  every  respect  equal 
to  a  great  part  of  Russia  in  Europe,  where  largo  cities  are 
found. 

The  country  drained  by  the  head  branches  of  Mackenzie 
River,  running  north  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  including  Atha- 
basca Lake,  as  well  as  the  extensive  country  around  the  south 
shore  of  Hudson  Bay  and  James'  Bay,  together  with  Labrador, 
extending  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
i.nd  lying  between  the  52d  and  GOth  degrees  of  north  latitude. 


HUDSON  BAY. 


45 


II  of 
jrdy 

are 

izie 

ha- 

lutli 

llor, 

iin, 

ide, 


is  mostly  unfit  for  settlement  or  habitation,  except  by  a  hardy 
race  of  trappers  and  Indians,  who  are  now  found  in  the  employ 
of  the  Hudson  Hay  Comiiany. 

This  extensive  region,  south  of  the  Esquimaux  country,  seems 
peculiarly  adapted  to  a  race  of  men  essentially  tliffen>nt  from 
those  who  inhabit  the  temperate  climate  of  America — thus 
marking  the  second  grand  division  of  people,  whoso  habits 
seem  distinct  from  those  of  more  southern  climes.  The  chase 
of  winter  for  game,  for  food,  and  furs  for  clothing  and  sale,  is 
succeeded  by  fishing,  and  a  short  season  for  raising  a  few  hardy 
vegetables  during  the  months  of  June,  July  and  August.  The 
winters  here  averagiug  eight  or  nine  months,  while  frosts  occur 
every  month  diu'ing  the  year. 

Hudson  Bay,  an  extensive  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  foi-ni- 
ing  a  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  east  side  of  the  North  American 
Continent,  lying  between  the  parallels  of  51°  and  OG^  north 
latitude,  and  measuring  uinvards  of  1,000  miles  fi'om  north  to 
south  ;  while  its  breadth  varies  from  150  to  500  miles.  It  is 
navigable  during  Juno,  July,  August  and  yei:)tcmber,  but  is 
filled  all  the  rest  of  the  year  with  shoals  of  ice.  The  main  en- 
trance of  the  bay  from  the  Atlantic,  known  as  Hudson's  Strait, 
is  350  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  75  to  150 
miles.  This  is  a  cold,  inhosi)itablc  region.  "  At  York  Factory, 
situated  on  the  soiithwest  shore,  the  land  seems  to  have  been 
thrown  up  by  the  sea,  and  is  never  thawed  during  the  hottest 
summer,  \vith  the  thermometer  at  90  -'  in  the  shade,  more  than 
ten  or  twelve  inches,  and  then  the  soil  is  of  the  consistency  of 
clammy  mud."  At  Fort  Franklin,  on  north  latitude  05^  12',  west 
longitude  llJ'2  ^  13',  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  17.50-"  Fahr.; 
the  maximum  of  heat  80^,  the  minimum  — 58  '.  "  To  account 
in  some  degree  for  this  extreme  cold,  it  may  bo  observed,  that 
very  little  of  the  coast  of  this  country  is  bounded  by  the  ocean  ; 
the  chief  parts  of  the  sea  upon  which  it  borders  are  Davis'  Strait, 
Hudson's  Strait  and  Bay,  and  James'  Bay.  Now,  these  bodies 
of  water,  though  of  considerable  magnitude,  are  not  sufficiently 
largo  to  check  the  iutiuence  of  the  wind  proceeding  from  the 
frozen  region  in  the  northwest ;  tlio  consequence  is,  that  they 
are  almost  entirely  covered  with  ice  during  six  mouths  of  the 
year,  and  thus,  instead  of  mitigating  the  cold,  they  add  con- 
siderably to  its  force.  It  has  further  been  observed,  that  much 
of  the  inland  is  elevated  and  diy,  unaccpiaintod  with  fogs,  and 
accordingly  healthy ;  while  the  coasts  are  low,  marshy,  exposed 
to  frequent  and  dense  fogs  and  moist  weather,  and  consequently 


II 


ii, 


46 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


highly  noxious  to  the  human  frame.  The  former  is  abundantly 
fertile  in  spontaneous  productions,  and,  by  being  cultivated  in 
favorable  jilaccs,  becomes  a  very  agreeable  coimtry ;  tlio  latter 
is  dreary  and  unproductive,  and  scarce  afibrds  cither  food  or 
shelter  to  those  wild  beasts  by  which  it  is  frequented.  In  the 
northern  parts,  the  land  is  barren  and  comfortless;  in  tho 
southern  parts,  it  is  more  fertile,  and  offers  sufficient  encourage- 
ment to  him  who  Avould  bestow  the  proper  cultivation.  On  the 
coasts,  tho  country  chiefly  produces  pnies,  birch,  larches  and 
willows,  but  tho  trees  arc  stunted  and  knotty.  In  the  south 
Ulterior  tlie  same  kinds  of  trees  are  more  abundant,  and  of 
great  size." 

Monthly  and  Yearly  Mean  Temperature  of  Posts  on  the  Shores  of 

Hudson  Bay. 


Stations. 

York  Factory. 

Fort  Cluircliill. 

Fort  Hope, 

57°  N. 

51)'^  N. 

oa.ao"  N. 

°  Fahr. 

°  Fuhr. 

°  Fahr. 

January, 

5.12 

21.21 

—29.32 

February, 

— O.GO 

7.31 

26.68 

March,    . 

—4.77 

4.63 

28.10 

April, 

19.21 

16.29 

3.95 

May, 

33.53 

28.42 

17.88 

June, 

47.06 

44.69 

31.38 

July, 

60.00 

56.80 

41.46 

August,   . 

54.85 

53.39 

46.32 

September, 

41.90 

36.03 

28.57 

October, . 

33.43 

26.50 

12.56 

November, 

25.17 

3.31 

0.68 

December, 

3.73 

14.00 

19.27 

Yearly  mean,  . 

25.63 

18.20 

6.14 

York  Factory,  situated  on  Hudson  Bay,  in  north  latitude 
57^,  is  the  principal  depot  of  the  northern  department  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  from  whence  aU  the  supplies  for  the 
trade  are  issued,  and  where  all  the  returns  of  the  department 
are  collected  and  shipped  for  England. 

"  As  tho  winter  is  very  long,  nearly  eight  months,  and  the  sum- 
mer consequently  very  short,  all  the  ^^ansport  of  goods  to,  and 
returns  from,  tho  interior  must  necesso'  ily  he  effected  as  quickly 
as  possible.  The  consequence  is,  tha  gi'cat  numbers  of  men 
and  boats  are  constantly  arriving  from  inland,  and  departing 


YORK  FACTORY. 


47 


the 

the 

juent 

3um- 
aud 
k-kly 
hnen 
Ltiug 


again  during  tho  summer ;  and,  as  each  brigade  is  commanded 
by  a  chief  factor  trader,  or  ch'rk,  there  is  a  constant  succession 
of  new  faces,  which,  after  a  long  and  dreary  winter,  during  which 
tho  inhabitants  never  see  any  stranger,  renders  the  summer 
months  at  York  Factory  tlio  most  ugrei^ablo  part  of  the  year. 
The  arrival  of  tho  shij)  from  England,  too,  delights  tliom  with 
letters  from  /tonic,  which  are  only  received  twice  a  year. 

'*  The  Fort  (as  all  establishments  in  tho  Indian  country, 
whether  small  or  great,  are  called)  is  a  large  srjuare,  I  should 
think  about  six  or  seven  acres,  enclosed  with  high  stockades, 
and  built  on  tho  banks  of  Hayes  lliver,  nearly  live  miles  from 
its  mouth.  Tho  country  is  nat  and  swampy,  and  the  only 
objects  that  rise  very  prominently  above  the  rest,  and  catch 
tho  wandering  eye,  are  the  lofty  "  outlook"  of  wood,  painted 
blajk,  from  wliich  to  look  out  for  the  arrival  of  the  shij),  and  a 
flagstaff,  from  which  on  Sundays  tho  snowy  folds  of  St.  George's 
flag  flutter  in  the  breeze. 

"  The  trade  carried  on  by  the  company  is  in  peltries  of  all 
sorts,  oil,  dried  and  salted  fish,  feathers,  quills,  ttc. ;  and  a  list 
of  some  of  their  principal  articles  of  commerce  is  subjoined  : — 
Bear-skins,  black,  brown,  and  white  or  polar;  beaver-skins; 
badger-skins;  moose  or  elk-sldns,  buffalo  or  bison  robes; 
deer-skins ;  parchment ;  fox-skins,  black,  red,  silver,  cross,  white, 
and  blue  ;  marten-skins,  lynx-skins,  musquash-skins,  otter-skins, 
wolf-skins,  seal-skins,  &c.,  etc. 

"  The  most  valuable  of  tho  furs  mentioned  in  the  above  list  is 
that  of  the  black  fox.  This  beautiful  animal  resembles  in  shape 
the  common  fox  of  Enghmd,  but  it  is  much  larger,  and  j( it-black, 
Avith  the  exception  of  one  or  tv/o  white  hairs  along  the  back- 
bone, and  a  pure  white  tuft  on  the  end  of  the  tail.  A  single 
skin  sometimes  brings  from  twenty-live  to  thirty  guineas  in  tho 
British  market ;  but,  unfortunately,  they  are  very  scarce.  At 
present  the  most  profitable  fur  in  the  country  is  that  of  the 
marten ;  it  somewhat  resembles  the  Russian  sable,  and  gene- 
rally maintains  a  steady  price.  These  animals,  moreover,  aro 
very  numerous  throughout  most  part  of  the  Company's  terri- 
tories, particularly  on  Mackenzie  River,  from  Avhence  great  num- 
bers are  annually  sent  to  England.  Most  of  the  above  animals 
are  caught  in  steel  and  wooden  traps  by  the  natives,  while  deer, 
buffaloes,  &c.,  are  run  doAvn,  shot,  and  snared  in  various  "ways." 

York  Factory  to  Nor^way  House. 

[ICxtract  from  "  Balliiutync'B  UiuUon  Hay  Territory,"  Londun,  1>43.] 

June  23,  1845,  leave  York  Factory.— "  The  banks  of  Hayes' 
River  were  covered  with  huge  blocks  of  ice,  and  scarcely  a  leaf 
had  as  yet  made  its  appearance ;  not  a  bird  was  to  be  seen, 


I    h 


HI  '  i 


48 


INFI.UENCE  OP  CLIMATE. 


except  i\  fow  crows  and  whiskey- jacks,  wliich  chattered  among  the 
trees ;  and  nature  ujipoared  as  if  undecided  wliother  or  not  she 
should  take  another  nap,  ore  slic  bedecked  herself  in  the  fj;armcnt8 
of  sprinj^.  My  Indians  paddknl  slowly  against  tlie  stream,  while  I 
■<vas  watching  the  sombre  pines  as  they  dropped  slowly  astera. 
ring  the  day  wo  })assed  a  brigade  of  boats  bound  for  the 
.  actory  ;  but,  l)eing  too  far  ofF,  and  in  a  rapid  part  of  the  river, 
wo  did  not  hail  them.  About  nine  o'clock,  wo  put  ashore  for 
the  night,  having  travelled  nearly  twenty  miles. 

J'nic  24. — "Everything  was  obscure  and  indistinct  till  about 
six  o'clock,  when  the  powerful  rays  of  the  rising  sun  dispelled 
the  mist,  and  nature  \ras  '  herself  again.'  A  good  deal  of  ico 
still  lined  the  shores  ;  but  what  astonished  me  most  was  the  ad- 
vanced state  of  vegetation  apj^arent  as  we  proceeded  inland. 
When  Ave  left  York  Factory,  not  a  leaf  had  been  visible  ;  but 
here,  though  only  thirty  miles  inland,  the  trees,  and  more  par- 
ticularly the  bushes,  were  pretty  well  covered  with  beautiful 
light  green  foil  age,  which  a2)peared  to  mo  quite  delightful,  after 
the  patches  of  snow  and  leatless  willows  on  the  shores  of  Hud- 
son Bay.  At  no(>n,  the  day,  Avhich  had  hitherto  been  agreeable, 
ovf  became  oppressively  sultry ;  not  a  breath  of  wind  ruffled 

^e  water ;  and  as  the  sun  shone  down  with  mtense  heat  fi-om  a 

rfectly  cloudless  f-ky,  it  became  almost  insufferable. 

Ju7'  '"  — "  The  weather  Avas  still  Avarm,  but  a  little  more  bear- 
able, oAvmg  to  a  light,  grateful  breeze  that  came  doAvn  the  river. 
After  bi'eakfast,  Avhicli  we  took  at  the  usual  hour,  and  in  the 
usual  Avay,  Avhile  proceeding  slowly  up  the  current,  avo  descritnl, 
on  rounding  a  point,  a  brigade  of  boats  close  to  the  bank,  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river ;  so  Ave  embarked  our  man,  who 
Avas  tracking  us  up  with  a  lino  (the  current  being  too  rapid  for 
the  contmucd  use  of  the  paddle),  and  crossed  over  to  see  Avho 
they  were.  On  landing,  avo  found  it  Avas  the  NorAvay  House 
brigade,  in  charge  of  a  lied  Eiver  settler  Shortly  after  Ave 
arriA'od  at  the  mouth  of  HiU  Ivivcr,  AA'hich  avo  began  to  ascend. 
The  face  of  the  couutiy  Avas  noAv  greatly  changed,  and  it  Avas 
evident  that  here  spring  had  long  ago  dethroned  Avinter.  The 
banks  of  the  river  Avere  covered  from  top  to  bottom  Avith  the 
most  luxuriant  foilage,  AvLile  the  dark  clumps  of  spruce-fir 
varied  and  improved  the  landscape. 

Jime  20. — "  On  the  following  morning,  we  started  at  an  early 
hour.  The  day  Avas  delightfully  cool,  and  mosquitoes  AA-ere 
scarce,  so  that  avc  felt  considerably  comfortable  as  avo  ghded 
quietly  up  the  current. 

Juli/  5. — "  Arrived  at  Norway  House,  situated  in  north  lati- 
tude 54",  west  longitude  1)8°,  being  about  300  miles  southwest 
of  York  Factory. " 


NORWAY  HOUSE— FORT  iVLEXANDER. 


40 


Norway  House. — This  fort,  situated  about  twenty  luilea  below 
Lake  Winnipeg,  in  north  latitude  54*^',  is  built  at  the  mouth  of  a 
small  and  sluggish  stream,  known  l)y  the  name  of  Jaek  Eivor, 
emptying  into  Playgreeu  Lake.  The  houses  are  ranged  in  the 
form  of  a  square,  none  of  them  exceed  one  story  in  height, 
and  most  of  tliem  are  wliitewashed.  This  is  one  of  the  oldest 
and  most  important  estabhshments  belonging  to  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company.  The  ''hmate  is  dry  and  salubrious,  and  although 
(Uke  nearly  all  other  parts  of  the  country)  extremely  cold  in 
■winter,  it  is  very  diffcrc-nt  from  the  damp,  (^hilling  cold  of  that 
season  iu  Great  Britain.  The  country  around  is  swampy  and 
rocky,  and  covered  with  dense  forests.  Many  of  tlu!  Company's 
j)osts  ovi)  but  ill  provided  with  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  most 
of  them  entirely  destitute  of  luxuries.  Norway  House,  how- 
ever, is  favored  in  this  respect.  We  always  had  fresh  meat  of 
some  kind  or  other  ;  sometimes,  beef,  mutton,  or  venison,  par- 
tridge, wild  ducks  in  their  season,  and  occasionally  buffalo  meat, 
was  sent  us  from  Swan  Iliver  District ;  and,  besides  the  pro- 
duce of  our  garden  in  the  way  of  vegetables,  the  river  and  lake 
contributed  white-fish,  sturgeon,  and  pike,  or  jack-fash  in  abun  • 
dance.  Tliis  is  also  an  aggi'ceable  and  interesting  place,  from 
its  being  in  a  manner  the  gate  to  the  only  route  to  Hudson  Bay, 
Often  might  be  seen  a  strange  and  noisy  collection  of  humin 
l)eings,  half-breeds,  and  Indians,  who  rested  here  aAvhilo  ere 
they  started  for  the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay,  for  the  distant  re- 
gion of  Mackenzie's  Bivev,  or  the  still  more  distant  lands  bor- 
dering on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of 
Norway  House  is  30^  Fahr.  ;  spring  28^,  summer  60"*,  autumn 
30",  winter  2°  below  zero. 

FoRTALEXiVNDER,  situated  near  Lake  Winnipeg,  50^  north  lati- 
tude, says  the  Kev.  J.  Ryerson,  "  belongs  to  the  Lac  Iia  Pluie 
District,  and,  in  my  judgment,  is  not  surpassed,  if  eqUidled,  in 
beauty  and  pleasantness,  by  any  station  belonging  to  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company,  between  8t.  Marie  and  lied  Eivcr.  It  is 
situated  on  an  elbow  of  land  made  by  a  bend  in  the  River  Win- 
nipeg, three  miles  from  the  river's  mouth.  The  scenery  for 
many  miles  around  is  strikingly  beautiful.  The  climate  for 
Hudson  Bay  Territory  is  remarkably  tine  and  salubrious,  the 
land  amazingly  rich  and  productive.  The  water  in  the  lakes 
Lac  La  Pluie,  Lac  Du  Bois,  Winnipeg,  itc,  is  not  deep,  and 
becauoe  of  their  wide  surface  and  great  shallowness,  during  the 


r, 


50 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


summer  season,  thoy  becomt;  exceedingly  warm ;  this  bas  a 
wonderful  eiFeot  on  the  temperature  of  tlio  atmosphere  in  the 
adjacent  neighborhood,  and  no  dou])t  makes  the  great  differ- 
ence in  the  climate  (or  at  leaso  is  one  of  the  principal  caiises  of 
it)  in  these  parts,  to  the  climate  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake 
Superior." 

He  further  says :  "In  many  parts  of  this  immense  country 
ihcYo  is  a  great  deal  of  excellent  land,  very  suitable  for  agricul- 
tural purposes ;  this  is  especially  the  case  in  many  localities 
south  of  hit.  55^,  where  almost  evciry  kind  of  summer  grain  and 
useful  vegetables  can  be  groAvn  with  the  greatest  facility,  and 
i'l  great  abundance.  There  is  not  to  be  found  in  British  America 
hner,  richer,  and  a  more  productive  soil,  than  there  is  in  the 
Selkirk  Settlement,  on  the  Assinniboino  and  lied  Rivers  ;  and 
in  the  ]:)ounds  of  llupert's  Land  there  are  millions  of  acres 
equally  rich  and  fertile,  and  esjiecially  suited,  from  climate  and 
locality,  for  farming  and  agricultural  purposes." 

Climate  of  a  Portion  of  British  America,  or  Rupert's  Land. 

[Extract  from  I'rofcssor  Hind's  "licport  on  Ihv.  AsKinilioine  and  Sat.,>  itcliewan  Country."    OlTicial 

I)oc\inu;nt,  l!?5'.).] 

"  The  climates  of  Canada  and  Eupert's  Land  (or  Hudson  Bay 
Companj^'s  Territory),  under  the  same  parallels  of  latitude,  vary 
to  a  considerable  extent  with  the  rock  formation  of  the  country. 
Throughout  the  undulating  region  of  the  Laurentides,  the  pro- 
portion of  water  to  dry  land  is  about  one  to  two,  not  collected 
into  one  large  water  area,  but  distributed  over  the  surface  of 
tlie  rountry  in  the  form  of  counthiss  thousands  of  lakes,  ponds, 
iin  1  :uarshes.  The  intense  cold  of  winter  is  sufficient  to  solidify 
the  deepest  lakes  for  a  depth  of  several  feet,  and  the  thawing 
of  so  much  ice  in  spring  has  the  effect  of  aT)sorbing  and  render- 
ing latent  tLo  heat  wliich  would  be  otherwise  expended  iu 
warming  the  soil  and  advancing  vegetation. 

"  Lakes  Winnipeg,*  Manitobali,  and  Winnipego-sis,  together 
wdth  the  smaller  lakes  belonging  to  the  Winuijieg  l)asin,  are 
deieply  frozen  every  winter,  and  ice  often  remains  in  their  north- 
em  extremities  imtil  the  beginning  of  June,  greatly  retarding 
the  progress  of  navigation  on  their  immediate  shores.  Hence 
one  reason  that  north  of  the  48th  parallel  the  mildness  of  the 
seasons  increases  rapidly  as  we  advance  toward  the  west,  after 
leaving  lied  lliver.  Tiio  improvement  arises  not  only  from 
gj'enter  longitude,  but  also  from  the  character  of  the  rock  for- 

*  Luke  WinniiK'gf,  lyin;^  botwoiMi  the  .Wtli  iiiul  54tU  dcgrt'cs  of  north  lutitudo, 
is  iiboiit  118  lo)i;j^  iiH  Liikd  Kric,  tuid  rccL'i.vostlio  waters  of  lied  River,  AHsinibuiue, 
Sabkatclic Willi,  iiiid  tlu3  Wiuiiipcf!; :  the  latter  streura  being  tho  outlet  of  tlio 
Luke  of  tlio  Woods,  lying  on  the  41ith  iiarallel. 


CIJMATE  OF  BRITISH  AMERICA. 


51 


mations,  by  ■wliicli  the  coimhy  is  underlaid  and  surrounded.  The 
soil  of  the  prairi{!S  is  in  general  dry,  and  is  rapidly  warmed  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun  in  spring.  The  prairies  enjoy,  too,  north  of 
the  48th  parallel,  the  genial,  -warm  and  comparatively  humid 
•winds  from  the  Pacitic,  which  arc  felt  as  far  north  as  the  latitude 
of  Fort  Simpson.'^ 

"  The  country  embraced  within  the  limits  of  this  exploration 
may  be  divided  into  two  regions  in  relation  to  climate ;  the 
ariil  and  the  hmiiid  region.  The  vast  treeh^ss  prairie  Avcst  of  the 
Little  Souris  (101'^  west  ^ongitude)  lies  within  tliat  part  of  tiie 
area  which  receives  comrarativel}'  a  small  annual  ram-fall.  Its 
northern  limit  is  roughly  shown  by  the  Qu'Appelle  Valley,  or 
more  accurately  by  an  imaginary  lin(>  draAvn  from  Fishing  Lakes 
to  the  Moose  Woods,  (52^  north  latitud<^).  North  and  east  of 
this  area,  the  preci])itation  is  consideral)ly  greater,  and  supplies 
tlie  vall(>y  of  the  main  Saslvatchewan,  the  Touchwood  Hill  range, 
and  the  valley  of  the  Assiniboine  with  an  abundance  of  moist- 
ure, which  is  protected  and  treasixred  1)y  forests." 

The  valley  of  the  Red  River,  east  of  the  Little  Souris,  re- 
ceives much  humidity  from  the  moist  winds  coming  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  up  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  over  the 
JieigJd  of  hnvl  whicili  separates  the  waters  of  Red  River  from 
those  of  the  St.  Peter  (ilowing  southward  into  the  Mississippi). 
The  Touchwood  Hill  range,  and  the  coumry  generally  north  of 
the  Qu'Appelle  Valley,  and  in  an  eiustei'ly  direction  towards 
and  beyond  Lake  Winnipeg,  ar(^  made  humid  by  the  southwest 
Pacific  Avind,  in  concurrence  with  the  prevaiHng  cast  wind  of 
this  region.  These  pluniomeua  are  referred  to  in  detail  in  suc- 
ceeding paragraphs. 


Lakes  in  tlie  Great  Basin  of  Lalce  Winnipeg. 


Name. 


Lake  Winnipeg,    '     . 
Lake  Manitobah, 
Lak(5  Winnipego-sis, 
St.  Martin  Lake, 
Cedar  Lake, 
Dau])hin  Lake, 


Total, 

*  Colonel  Lc'froy- 
Simpeon." 


Area. 

Above  the  Rea 

Squari!  Milps. 

Feet. 

8,.500 

050 

1,000 

070 

1,930 

092 

316 

600 

312 

088 

170 

700 

.    13,134 

'  Meteorological  Observations  at  Lake  Athabasca  and  Fort 


^"^r 


^li 


i 


I 
fl 


! 


62 


INFLUENCE   OF  CLIirATi:. 


Observations  on  the  Temperature  of  the  Air  in  DifTerent  Parts  of 
British  North  America. 


FoKT  Fkakklin,  in 

lat. 

(>5' 

12'N. 

Fort  CuKrEWYAS,  in 

lat.  58° 

43'  N. 

^lonths. 

Dt 

;„'.  Fahr. 

Months. 

Dog 

.  Fulir. 

Januan%  . 

-23.78 

January,  . 

9.5G 

February, 

-12.70 

February, 

— 4.2(; 

March,     . 

-  8.26 

March,     . 

0.55 

April, 

15.21 

Api-il, 

25.86 

May, 

8(5.35 

May, 

46.50 

June, 

48.00 

Juno, 

55.70 

July, 

52.10 

July, 

63.42 

Aujj;  ist,    . 

51.0!) 

Auj,Tist,    . 

58.10 

►September, 

42.92 

September, 

43.53 

October,  , 

20.28 

October,  . 

32.00 

November, 

2.D7 

November, 

26.70 

December, 

cau, 

ia.S)G 

December, 
Annual  Moan, 

—2.82 

Amiual  M 

17.50 

, 

31.50 

Lake  WrNTTiPEO,  lying  between  501°  and  54°  degrees  north 
latitude,  is  larger  than  either  Lake  Erie  or  Ontario,  though  the 
water  is  very  shallow ;  it  is  300  miles  long  and  about  50  miles 
wide,  being  650  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  (or  50  feet  higher 
than  Lake- Superior).  Tliere  appears  to  be  but  little  land  that 
would  admit  of  cultivation,  though  I  was  told  there  were  local- 
ities in  tho  neighborhood  of  the  lake  whore  are  found  largo 
tracts  of  land  of  the  most  excellent  quality.  Along  tho  eastern 
shore  tho  granite  and  trap  rocks  are  everywhere  exposed,  tho 
latter  being  the  mo,  t  extensive,  and  noAvhcre  do  these  masses 
rise  to  tho  altitude  of  hills.  Ltiko  Winni2^cg  is  very  niuch  rib- 
Ject  to  winds  and  storms,  which  many  times  rise  so  suddenly'  as 
to  give  tho  mariner  no  warning  of  their  approach,  until,  like  a 
giant  in  his  strength,  they  are  upon  him.  Imagination  cannot 
paint,  much  less  language  describe,  the  subhmity  and  grandeur 
of  a  thunder-storm,  as  seen  in  the  forest  on  the  shore  of  the 
lake,  Avhen  the  wild  "Vfaves  are  'aging ;  tho  lurid  glare  of  tlio 
vivid  lightning  seems  brighter,  and  tho  claps  and  roarings  of 
the  thunder  seem  louder  and  deeper  than  anywhere  else. 

Norway  House,  an  important  Hudson  Bay  Compa^-y's  post, 
situated  in  north  latitude  54°,  is  represented  as  possessing  a 
fine  healthy  climate,  where  gi-ains,  vegetables,  and  flowers  are 
raised  in  great  abundance. 


SEASONS  OF  THE  VALLEY   OF  LAKE   WINOTFEG. 


53 


Seasons  of  the  Valley  of  Laka  "Winnipeg. 

The  natural  division  of  the  seasons  in  the  Lake  Winnipeg 
Valley  are  as  follows : 

Spnn(;. — April  and  May. 

Summer. — June,  July,  and  August. 

Autumn. — Septeml)er  and  October. 

JVinier.  —  November,  Deccniljer,  January,  February,  and 
Marcli. 

Tlie  natural  division  of  the  seasons  is  strikingly  represented 
by  the  early  and  rajiid  advance  of  temperature  in  May  in  the 
valley  and  prairies  of  the  Saskatchewan  ;  and  it  is  also  indicated 
in  a  very  marked  dogi-ee  by  the  extension  northwards  to  the 
same  valley,  between  the  95th  and  105th  degrees  of  longitude, 
of  numerous  ])lantK,  whose  gtiographical  dis-tfibution,  east  and 
west  of  those  limits,  has  a  much  more  southern  climatic  boun- 
dary. The  limits  of  trees  rise  with  the  isothermal  lines,  and 
these  attain  a  much  higher  elevation  in  the  interior  of  British 
America  than  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

In  relation  to  agricidture,  the  intensity  of  winter  cold  is  of 
comparatively  little  moment.  The  elevated  spring  and  summer 
temperature,  combined  with  the  humidity  of  the  hundd  region 
in  the  valley  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  enal)lo  Indiisn  coixi  and  the 
melon  to  ripen  Avitli  certahity,  if  ordinary  care  is  taken  in  select- 
ing soil  and  in  planting  seecl. 


SUMMER  TEMrERAlTJEES. 


Kingston,  C.  W. 
Toronto,  " 


G7^  Fahr. 


Fort  Gary,  Eed  Eiver,  07'^  Fahr 
Isorwav  House,  Lake 

Winnipeg,        .        .  GO'^      "      , 

"  In  tlie  absence  of  instrumental  observations,  the  progi-ess 
of  vegetation  afibrds  the  In^st  ijidications  of  climate,  ajiart  from 
latitude  and  elevation  above  the  sea.  The  prv  od  of  flowering 
and  fruiting  is  about  three  weeks  earlier  in  latitude  SI"*,  than 
betAVcen  the  53d  and  51th  parallels  wt^st  of  the  100th  degree  of 
longitude.  The  i)rairi<>s  of  the  Assiniboine,  of  the  Qu'Appelle, 
and  of  the  South  Branch  of  the  Elbow,  are  decorated  with  bril- 
liant spring  flowers,  and  covered  with  luxiirinnt  herbage,  at  a 
time  when  the  ice  still  liugers  at  the  head  of  Lake  Winnipeg, 
or  chills  the  air  and  arrests  vegetation  in  Oedar  and  Cross  Lakes 
on  the  Main  Siiskatchewan.  At  Touchwood  Hills,  in  north 
latitude  51  '  DO',  horses  and  cattle  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
0}K',u  air  all  winter,  finding  sufficient  pasture  under  the  snow  to 
keep  them  in  good  condition. 

"  The  growtb  of  forests  is  very  intimately  connected  with  the 
climate  of  a  large  extent  of  country.     That  forests  once  covered 


54 


INFLUENCE  or  CLIMATE. 


I  ilii 


I  |l!: 


a  vast  area  in  Rupert's  Land  tliero  is  no  reason  to  donbt.  Not 
only  do  the  traditions  of  the  natives  refer  to  former  forests,  but 
the  remains  of  mai._;  still  exist  as  detached  groves  in  secluded 
valleys,  or  on  the  crests  of  hills,  or  in  the  form  of  blackened 
prostrated  trunks  covered  with  rich  grass,  and  sometimes  with 
vegetable  mould  (n-  drifted  sand.  The  agent  ■wliich  has  caused 
the  desti-uction  of  the  forests,  Avhich  once  covered  many  parts 
of  the  prairies,  is  undoubtedly  fire ;  and  the  same  swift  and 
eflfectual  destroyer  prevents  the  new  growth  from  acquiring 
dimensions  which  wcnild  (^nablo  it  to  check  their  annual  pro- 
gi'ess." 

Prevailing  Winds  in  the  North-west  Territory. 

[From  Hiiid'H  "  IJeport  on  Ilii-  Assiiiilioiiio  and  Saskatchewnn."] 

"  All  the  tlmnder-storms  we  cncountereil  in  1858,  in  the 
valley  of  Lak(^  Winnipeg,  came  from  the  west,  soutliAvest,  or 
northwest,  with  one  excei)tiou.  I  do  not  find  a  single  record  of 
tlmnder-storms  with  heavy  rain  commg  from  the  south.  This 
may  have  been  an  exceptional  year,  but  the  warmth  and  dr}-- 
ness,  often  oiiprcssive,  of  the  south  Avind,  west  of  the  100th  de- 
gree of  longitude,  contrasted  strongly  with  the  humidity  and 
coldness  of  Avinds  from  the  west.  This  i)henomena  is  directly 
opposed  to  those  which  ]n'ovailin  lower  latitudes,  and  may  prob- 
ably be  explained  as  follows  : 

"  Warm  air  from  the  Pacific,  loaded  with  moisture,  parses  at 
certain  periods  of  the  year  over  the  whole  range  of  the  llocky 
Mountains,  in  British  America  and  in  the  XJnitod  States.  These 
Pacific  winds  occasion  biit  a  very  small  precipitation  of  rain  or 
snow  on  the  eastern  flank  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  south  of 
the  gi'eat  Missouri  Bend.  Similar  winds  from  the  Pacific  do 
occasion  a  considerable  pronpitation  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  Saskatchewan  valley.  Wl.  ence,  then,  this  apparent  anomaly '? 
It  probably  arises  from  the  difference  in  the  temperature  of  the 
two  regions,  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  A\-inds,  and  lowness 
and  comparatively  small  breadth  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  ranges 
in  that  latitude.  In  spring  and  summer,  warm  Avesterly  winds, 
ladened  with  moisture,  in  j)assing  over  the  mountain  range 
south  of,  say  the  'KUh  paraliel,  are  cooled  to  a  certain  tempera- 
ture, and  ]n'ecipitato  the  greater  portion  of  their  iuoisture,  in 
the  form  of  rain  or  snow,  upon  t  iuountam  ridges.  On  arriv- 
ing at  the  eastern  tiank  of  the  llocky  Mountains,  their  tciupera- 
turo  rises  to  tliat  of  the  region  over  which  they  pass,  ])eing 
elevated  by  the  dep(jsition  of  their  moisture  in  the  form  of  rain 
or  snow,  and  continually  increasing  density  as  th<\y  descend  ; 
but  the  capacity  of  air  for  moisture  is  well  known  to  bo  depend- 


i« 


km 


PASSES  OVER  THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS. 


55 


ent  upon  its  temperature,  within  certain  limits,  hence  the  west- 
erly Pacific  -winds  become  more  warm  and  more  dry  as  they 
descend  the  eastern  Eocky  Mountain  slope,  until  they  meet  the 
moist  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ])assiuf<  up  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi,  towards  and  thr<jugh  the  region  of  the  Great 
Canadian  Lakes  and  over  the  low  height  of  land  separating 
the  waters  flowing  into  Lake  Winnipeg,  fi'om  the  Mississippi 
Valley.'* 

"In  the  latitude  of  the  Valley  of  the  Saskatchewan,  however, 
the  moist  southwest  winds  from  the  Pacific  find  a  broad  de- 
pression in  the  llocky  Moimtain  range,  and  losing  less  humidity 
than  those  passing  over  the  higher  ranges  to  the  south,  meet 
with  a  prevailing  northeasterly  wind  as  they  begin  to  descend 
their  eastern  Hank,  their  temperature  is  consequently  lessened, 
instead  of  being  elevated,  and  their  capacity  for  moisture  dimin- 
ished, hence  ])recipitatiou  in  the  form  of  rain  and  hail  takes 
l^lace  as  they  descend  the  slope  towards  Lake  Winnipeg.  Hail- 
storms are  not  unfrecpieut  during  the  summer  months,  and  the 
prairies  sometimes  retain  the  record  of  their  occurrence  for 
many  weeks. 

"  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  southern  Pacific  winds,  passing 
through  the  broad  depression  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  near  the 
49th  and  51st  parallels,  without  losing  the  whole  of  their  moist- 
ure, give  humidity  to  the  large  portion  of  llupert's  Land  over 
which  they  traverse." 

Passes  over  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Summit  of  the  Lowest  Passes  abovo  the  Ocean  from  the  33d  to  the  5l8t  parallel 

North  Latitude. 

Feet. 

32d  parallel,  near  El  Paso,  Mexico,         ....     5,717 

35th  parallel,  near  All)U(|uerque,  N(>w  Mexico,        .         .     7,472 

38th  and  8!)th  parallels  I  Coochecopa  Pass),    .         .         .10,000 

41st  and  42d         "  (South  Pass),      ....     7,085 

47th  and  49th      "  (Cadotte's  Pass),         .         .         .     G,044 

Kv  anie  Pass,  latitude  49'  30',  British  America,     .         .     (5,000 

K.ananaskis  Pass,  near  50th  parallel,       ....     5,985 

Vermillion  Pass,  latitude  51^  10', 4,944 


•  See  "  Meteorology  ia  its  Connectioa  with  Agriculture/'  by  Prof.  Henry. 


56 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Mean  Temperatures. 

Monthly  and  Yearly  Moan  Tomporaturo  of  Cumhcrlnnd  ITouxe,  fiituated  on  tlin 
North  Siioro  of  the  Saskatchewan  Hiver,  in  nortli  latitude  53"  57' ;  altitude 
900  feet  above  the  ocean. 


Months. 

"  Fahr. 

Months. 

•  Fahr. 

Jannarv,  . 

—1. 

July, 

05.00 

February, 

8. 

August,    . 

62.84 

March,     . 

18.30 

September, 

44.50 

April, 

27.00 

October,  . 

33.15 

May,*       . 

52.00 

November, 

21.48 

June, 

60.00 

December 

7.94 

Yearly  Mean 

,  33.20°  Fahr. 

FOUR  SEASONS. 

Spring,    . 

^                 ^ 

32.70^ 

Autumn, 

33.04'^ 

Summer, 

1                 • 

62.G2^ 

Winter,   . 

.      —0.17° 

Climate  of  the  Valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North. 

"  The  climate  of  the  valley  of  Eed  Riv(>r  exhibits  the  extremes 
of  many  characteristics  Avliich  belong  to  the  interior  of  conti- 
nents in  corresponding  latitudes.  High  suumier  temperatiires, 
with  Avinter  cold  of  extraordinary  sevfity,  apjiear  to  prevail  in 
the  district  called  the  Assiniboinc,  as  in  the  interior  of  north- 
eastern Eurojie  and  Asia.  It  cannot  fail  to  be  noticed,  however, 
that  the  general  absence  of  late  spi-ing  and  early  autumn  frosts, 
with  an  abundant  fall  of  rain  during  the  agricultural  months, 
are  its  distinguishing  features  in  relation  to  husbandry.  The 
melon  growing  in  the  open  air  and  arriving  at  perfect  maturity 
in  August  and  September ;  Indian  corn  succeeding  invariably 
when  due  precautions  are  used  to  ensiu'e  the  ripening  before 
the  middle  of  September,  are  strong  proofs  of  the  almost  uni- 
form absence  of  summer  frosts. 

"  A  comparison  Avith  the  climate  of  Toronto,  Canada  West,  for 
corresponding  months  of  the  years  1855  and  1850,  reveals  some 
very  curious  and  interesting  facts,  which  may  possess  impor- 
tance. Limiting  our  attention  at  present  to  the  summer  months, 
we  find  fron?  ins])ecti(m  of  the  following  table  of  comparison,  that 
the  summer  on  Kcd  Kiver  dujiug  the  above  years  was  more  than 
three  degrees  warmer  than  the  summer  at  Toronto,  and  Avith 
tiiis  excess  of  temperature  there  occun^ed  the  unexi)ected  dif- 
ference of  21.74  inches  of  rain  in  favor  of  Bed  River  during  that 
year. 

'^  The  mean  temperatures  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August  are  about  the  sarao 
as  Toronto. 


TEMrERATURE,   RAIN,  ETC. 


57 


"  It  must  be  boiiie  in  mintl,  however,  that  the  results  of  ono 
year's  comparison  are  not  (if  much  mine  in  estimating  the  rela- 
tive climatic  adaptation  of  regionti  far  apart ;  nor  do  tliey  alibrd 
sufficient  data  for  a  fair  estimate  of  the  climate  of  the  locaHty 
where  the  observations  "were  made." — Hind'.s  liiporL 

The  following  comparisons  refer  to  corresponding  months  of 
the  same  years,  and  are  of  course  liable  to  those  annual  fluctua- 
tions to  which  the  climatic  elements  of  all  countries  arc  sub- 
jected. It  is  vei'y  probable  that  more  extended  observations 
Avill  reduce  the  extremes. 

Temperature,  Rain,  &c. 

Comparison  of  tin;  Metcorolon-y  of  Ilccl  River  Settlement  with  Toronto,  Canada 
West,  witli  reference  to  Temperatiire,  Oeptli  of  linin  and  t^now,  from  corre- 
sponding Observations  in  tlie  Years  iVHii  and  IS.'iG. 


Months. 

Mean  Temp. 

Rain  in 

Indies. 

Snow  in  Inches. 

lied  Uivor. 

Toronto. 

Red  Kiver. 

0.0 
6.5 
4.0 

Toronto. 

0.0 

2.8 
4.5 

Red  River. 

Toronto. 

March,  . 
April,    . 

May,      . 

o  Fahr. 
D.O'J 

39.83 

58.4(5 

0  Fahr. 

23.00 
42.27 
50.52 

6.5 
3.0 
2.0 

16.2 
0.1 
0.0 

Spring,       . 

35.79:  38.62 

10.5 

6.0 
12.0 
12.5 

7.3 

4.0 
3.2 
1.5 

11.5 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

16.3 

June,     . 
July,      . 

August, 

69.10 
71.1() 
63.03 

59.93 
67.95 
64.06 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

Summer,    . 

67.76 

64.00 

59.49 
45.39 
38.58 

30.5 

8.7 

0.0 

0.0 

September, 

October, 

November, 

59.26 
42.20 
21.19 

5.0 
0.0 
2.5 

5.0 
2.4 
4.6 

0.0 
2.0 
7.0 

0.0 

0.8 
3.0 

Autumn, 

40.88|  47.82 

7.5 

12.0 

1.8 
0.0 
0.0 

9.0 

3.8 

December, 

Januar}^ 

February, 

—  8.31 

—10.00 

1.71 

27.00 
16.02 
15.69 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

8.0 
5.0 
6.0 

29.5 

13.0 

9.7 

"Winter, 

6,85 
35.00 

19.57 

0.0 

48.5 

1.8 
30.6 

190 

52.8 

Annual  Teaap., 

44.00 

39.5 

72.9 

I 


58 


INTLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


\ 
.1 


' 


■ 


■'I  I 


1 

'1 

/I 
■  ,1 

' 

■: 

■fi 
1 

1; 

^ 

I 

i 


Tlio  summer  tomj^eraturo  of  Eccl  River,  and  the  abseuco  of 
frosts  duriup;  that  seasou,  dotermiiic  the  tituoss  for  agricultural 
purposes.  The  following  table  exhibits  a  comparison,  based 
upon  one  year's  ohscn'(ilii»i.s  onhj,  between  the  summer  tempera- 
ture of  the  settlement  and  other  well  kiioAva  places  in  v^'anada : — 

Sum.  Tomp. 
Eed  River  Settlement,  ....         67.70'' 

Montreal,  Canada  East,       ....         (]().62'-' 
Quebec,  "         ,"  ....         62.91^ 

Toronto,  Canada  West,        ....         Oi.OO^ 

Mr.  BallantAnie,  in  his  veiy  interesting  work  on  the  "  Hudson 
Bay  Territory,"  after  a  residence  there  of  six  years,  remarks  ; — 
"  The  climate  of  Red  River  (between  north  latitude  49  ■  and  50^) 
is  salubrioiTS  and  agreeable.  Winter  commences  about  the 
month  of  November,  and  spring  generally  begins  in  April.  Al- 
though the  winter  is  very  long  and  extremely  cold,  yet,  from  its 
bemg  always  drji  fi-ost,  it  is  much  more  agiveable  than  people 
accustomed  to  the  damp  thawy  weather  of  Great  Britain  might 
suppose.  Winter  is  here  the  liveliest  season  of  the  year,  atibrd- 
ing  the  most  enjoyment. 

"  During  the  summer  months,  tliert^  arc;  often  very  severe 
thunder-storms,  frecpiently  accompanied  with  tremendous  show- 
ers of  hail,  Avhich  do  great  mischii^f  to  the  crops  and  houses. 
Generallj'  speaking,  however,  the  weather  is  serene  and  calm, 
particularly  in  autumn,  and  during  the  delicious  season  peculiar 
to  America,  called  the  Indian  Summer,  which  precedes  the  com- 
mencement of  winter." 

From  the  above  authentic  account,  it  seems  that  the  year  is 
about  eqiiaUy  divided,  giving  six  months  for  the  production  of 
all  kinds  of  vegetation,  and  six  months  of  frost  and  winter,  not 
dift'ering  materially  from  the  climate  found  in  difierent  parts  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  above  the  "  Highlands,"  or  in  the  New 
England  States. 

The  Lake  of  the  Woods,  Avhich  empties  its  surplus  water  into 
Lake  Winuii)cg,  sixty-eight  miles  in  length,  and  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  miles  wide,  is  a  splendid  sheet  of  water,  dotted  all 
over  with  hundreds  of  l)eautiful  islands,  many  of  which  are 
covered  with  a  heavy  and  luxuriant  foliage.  Warm  and  fi'o- 
quent  showers  occur  here  in  May  and  Juno,  bringing  forth 
vegetation  at  a  rapid  rate,  although  situated  on  the  49th  paral- 
lel, from  whence  extends  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  the 
boundary  line  between  the  United  States  and  Canada. 


RAINY  LAKE. 


69 


IS 

lof 

>f 


to 

llll 


11- 


"Not  a,  trace  of  civilization  is  anywlioro  obsorvablo,  but  the 
Imliaus  aro  niiincrous  ;  and,  incl(^c(l,  this  lako  sceins  to  be  their 
favorite  resort  in  snnnner  ;  the  Avihl  rice  on  its  borders,  and  the 
fish  whicli  abound  in  its  -svatei's,  atl'ord  them  an  easy  means  of 
subsistence,  not  to  mention  the  maize  wliich  they  {^aow  on  the 
islands.  They  aro  a  line  looking  race,  and  if  removed  fi'om  the 
humanizing  influences  of  civihzation,  they  aro  also  strangers  to 
the  vices  -which  it  brings.  The  men  aro  generally  tall  aud  well 
formed,  and  some  of  the  women  remarkably  comely,  but  they  are 
not  very  cleanly  in  their  habits,  and  there  can  be  nothing  more 
suggestive  of  indolence  than  their  mode  of  life,  which,  however, 
has  one  feature  to  reconnuend  it,  in  the  entire  exemption  from 
care  with  whicli  it  seems  to  bo  attended.  Gliding  in  tlicir  light 
canoes  from  island  to  island,  basking  in  the  sunshine  on  somo 
pebbly  strand,  and  merely  exerting  themselves  to  an  extent  suf- 
ficient to  supply  their  immediate  wants,  the  future  affects  them 
not,  and  they  appear  to  be  supremely  happy  ;  but  the  winter 
l)rings  its  troubles,  and  they  have  to  betake  themselves  to  the 
forests  in  single  famiUes,  where,  having  only  game  to  depend 
upon,  they  are  sometimes  satUy  straitened." — I)aicw)i's  licport. 

IIainy  Lake,  or  Lac  la  Pluie,  forming  also,  in  part,  the 
l)Oundary  between  the  al)ove  countries,  lying  to  the  eastward, 
is  another  most  beautiful  sheet  of  water ;  it  is  forty-eight  miles 
long,  and  averages  about  ten  miles  in  breadth.  It  receives  the 
waters  flowing  westward  from  the  dividing  ridge  separating  the 
watev^  flowing  into  Lako  Supeiior  from  those  flowing  northwest 
into  Lako  Winnipeg  and  Hudson  Bay. 

"There  is  nothing,  I  think,"  says  BaUantyne,  "better  calcu- 
lated to  aAvaken  tlie  more  solemn  feelings  of  our  nature  than 
the  noble  lakes,  studded  with  innumerable  islets,  suddenly 
bursting  on  the  traveller's  view  as  he  emerges  from  the  sombre 
forest  rivers  of  the  American  wilderness.  The  pure  aud  clear 
unruflled  water,  stretching  out  on  the  horizon — here  mtorsecting 
the  heavy  and  luxuriant  foliage  of  an  hiindred  woody  isles,  or 
reflecting  tlie  wood-dad  moimtains  on  its  margin,  cloth')d  in  all 
t]H)  variegated  hues  of  autunni ;  and  there  glittering  with  all  the 
dazzling  brilliancy  in  the  bright  rays  of  the  evening  sun,  or 
rippling  among  the  reeds  and  rushes  of  some  shallow  bay,  where 
thousands  of  wild-fowl  chatter  as  they  feed  Avith  varied  cry, 
rendering  more  apparent,  rather  than  disturbing,  the  solenui 
stillness  of  the  scene ;  aU  tend  to  raise  the  soul  from  nature  up 
to  nature's  God,  and  remind  one  of  the  beautiful  passage  of 
Scripture,  '  O  Lord,  Iioav  marvellous  are  thy  Avorks  :  in  Avisdom 
hast  thou  made  them  all :  the  earth  is  full  of  thy  riches.'  " 


no 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE, 


i 


1  I 


Climate  of  Labrador. 

Labrador  is  a  triangiilur  peninsula,  boimclGd  on  the  east  Ly 
Da\'is'  Strait,  on  the  south  bj  C^anada  East  and  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  and  on  tlio  west  by  Hudson  Bay  ;  but  it  is  as  exces- 
sively cold  and  barren  as  tlio  countries  to  the  west  of  the  bay, 
and  is,  besides,  almost  constantly  enveloiicd  in  fo^^s.  The  cli- 
mate is  very  rigorous,  and  the  winter  lasts  nine  months  of  the 
year.  It  is  too  severe  to  ripen  any  of  the  cereals ;  but  potatoes 
and  several  species  of  culinary  vegetables  are  said  to  thrive  and 
come  to  maturity.  The  climate,  however,  of  the  interior  is 
somewhat  milder  than  that  of  the  coasts.  The  surface  is  mostly 
a  mass  of  rocks  and  mountains,  interspersed  with  innumerable 
lakes  and  rivei-s,  which  aboiind  iii  fish.  It  swarms  with  beavers 
and  other  fiir-bearing  aiiimals  ;  reindeer,  foxes,  and  bears  also 
abound.  The  eider-duck  and  other  buxls  in  counticss  swarms 
frequent  the  eastern  coast ;  also  seals  of  different  species.  The 
northern  and  northeastern  portions  are  inhabited  by  Esqui- 
maux, among  whom  the  Moravian  brethren  have  estabhshed 
four  settlements — at  Nain,  at  Okak,  Hoffenthal  or  Hopedale, 
and  Hebron ;  and  besides  preaching  the  gospel,  have  taught  the 
natives  many  of  the  useful  arts  of  life. 

The  moan  temperature  of  Okak,  situated  in  north  latitude 
57"^  30',  beiuj  about  the  same  as  Sitka,  N.  A.,  is  as  follows  : — 
Spring,  25^  ;  Summer,  50"^ ;  Autumn,  33^  ;  Winter,  4' :  Yearly 
mean,  28°  Fahr. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  region  on  this  continent  of  which  the  gen- 
eral idea  is  more  cloudy  and  indistinct  than  tha[.  of  Labrador. 
American  fishermen  now  more  frequently  extend  iheir  piscato- 
rial visits  to  its  coasts  than  formerly,  and,  so  far  as  we  under- 
stand, with  good  average  success.  Some  interesting  facts  going 
to  shed  a  little  light  on  the  general  darkness,  with  respect  to  the 
natural  history  and  meteorology  of  Labrador,  are  presented  in 
the  folloA^'ing  extract  fi-om  a  letter  written  by  one  of  a  party  en- 
gaged in  cod  fishing  along  the  shore  of  that  bleak  and  chiUing 
land.     He  says  : — 

"  From  a  thermometrical  register  kept  at  Rigolette,  we  find 
the  lowerst  temperature  of  last  winter  to  be  but  — 37"',  which  is 
no  colder  weather  than  is  found  in  New  England  ;  but  that  sea- 
son was  unusually  warm.    The  average  summer  day  temperature 


LABRADOn. 


61 


[ler- 
ling 


Iml 

is 
3a- 


according  to  our  ovnx  observations,  is  about  54°  Fahr.  'n  ono  in- 
stance till)  thormomctcr  indicatctl  as  high  as  80^  in  the  shade,  and 
in  another  74  '.  The  lowi^st  winter  day  temperature  was  — 'jlj-', 
ard  the  nun'cury  several  times  sank  to  — 4(3^.  It  is  not  inten- 
sity of  cold,  but  the  raw  chilly  atmosphere,  impregnated  with 
fogs  and  the  moisture  of  melting  snow,  that  renders  necossar}' 
much  thiidcor  clothing  than  wo  wear  at  homo  in  mid-winter. 
Although  the  climate  is  considered  very  health v  by  the  settlers, 
yet  I  could  hardly  recommend  it  to  invalids,  'to  those  aftiicted 
with  weak  or  diseased  lungs  it  is  extremely  injmious.  Of  this 
wo  had  al)undant  endence  in  three  cases  among  our  i)assen- 
gers,  all  of  which  have  been  aggi'avatcd  by  the  exjjosure.  Tho 
winters  hero  are  very  long,  and  may  bo  said  to  extend  from  tho 
middle  of  September  to  tho  1st  of  June.  Tho  cold  is  quite  uni- 
form, and  the  snow  lies  about  four  feet  dec^p  on  a  level.  All 
that  portion  of  the  ocean  embayed  by  tho  chain  of  islands  that 
extends  along  the  coast  is  frozen  solid  until  May,  and  tho  ice- 
field sometimes  extends  beyond  several  miles  to  seaward.  This 
is  then  the  resort  of  tho  Arctic  foxes  and  tho  white  or  polar 
bear.  Tho  'water  bear,'  he  is  called  hero.  They  are  often 
found  upon  tho  islands  after  tho  breaking  up  of  tho  ice,  where 
they  have  been  left  uncxpcc^  d ;  -.  They  are  quite  numerous. 
Of  foxes,  largo  numbers  ar*)  caught  in  traps.  These  live  alto- 
gether ui)on  tho  coast,  and  do  not  fraternize  with  tho  other 
species  of  lox  in  the  interior.  Snow  may  be  said  to  disappear 
by  the  end  of  May,  but  it  is  found  in  gulloys  and  hollows  all 
through  the  summer. 

"  Labrador  water  we  cannot  recommend.  It  is  but  tho  drain- 
ing of  mcdting  snow  and  frozen  earth,  which,  percolating  through 
tho  moss,  becomes  a  rank  decoction,  filled  with  vegetable  mat- 
ter, and  of  the  color  of  whiskey.  Natural  springs  are  rare,  but 
wo  have  frequentlv  found  ponds  and  lakes  upon  tho  summits  of 
rocky  knolls,  which  appear  to  be  fathomless,  and  whoso  water 
was  pui*e  and  deUciously  cold.  As  I  havo  remarked,  there  aro 
no  roads  in  this  coimtry,  and  tho  only  thoroughfares  of  travel  in 
summer  are  the  water  courses  which  flow  from  the  interior.  I 
have  referred  at  length  to  the  Nor' west  lliver  and  its  immense 
outlet.  Tho  St.  I'rancis  or  Alexis  Eiver  is  the  only  one  of  con- 
siderable size  between  that  and  tho  Straits  of  Belle  Isle.  It  is 
a  noble  stream,  but  neither  that  nor  the  other  is  indicated  on 
any  maps  yet  made, 

"  Labratlor  furnishes  littlo  sport  to  the  angler.  Salmon  aro 
taken  in  immense  quantiti*||iu  nets,  but  will  not  meddle  with 
tho  hook ;  neither  will  sea  trout  nor  salmon  trout.  Brook  trout 
afibrd  the  only  sport.  The  winter  hunting  is  good.  Tho  only 
deer  fovmd  here  is  the  caribou  and  reindeer.     These  aro  by 


i 


'<  ill' 


iu 


62 


INFIJJENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


some  f  onsiidorcd  a^^*  ono  and  the  same,  but  the  settlers  make 
thorn  quite  diKtinot.  The  ono  is  mrtttlod  ■with  reddish  spots ; 
the  other  is  of  a  mouse  color  in  suunner,  and  nearly  white  in 
winter.  From  all  I  can  learn,  the  two  animals  are  identical, 
and  the  diflbronco  in  appearance  is  occasioned  1)}'  the  change  of 
coat.  The  reindeer  is  not  domesticated  here,  nor  made  to  draw 
sledges,  as  in  Lapland.  Their  time  of  fawning  is  two  months 
later  than  in  the  States,  and  they  are  in  the  velvet  until  near 
the  end  of  August.  Trapping  the  fur-bearing  aninmls  affords 
a  considerable  profit,  and  quite  frequently  the  hunter  is  rewarded 
b^  a  black  or  silver  fox,  Avhose  market  prices  are  from  forty  to 
sixty  dollars. 

"  Wo  cannot  but  remark  how  carefully  the  animals  of  this  icy 
country  are  protected  by  nature  from  their  enemies.  When 
man  goes  forth,  upon  the  snow  to  hunt,  where  upon  the  spotless 
mantle  the  smallest  dark  object  would  be  readily  revealed,  then 
they  are  robed  in  white.  Tlie  white  partridge  nies  up  from  his 
very  feet,  where  he  perceived  but  lumps  of  feathery  snow.  The 
deer,  bear,  fox,  ermine,  all  clad  in  white,  pass  him  with  im- 
punity. Did  not  hunger  lead  them  to  the  traps,  or  their  deeply 
embedded  tracks  *  prate  of  their  whereabout,'  seldom  would 
they  fall  victims  to  man.  In  the  summer  they  are  slaty  and 
mouse-colored,  like  the  rocks,  or  wood-colored,  like  the  trees, 
and  in  nir.iiy  an  imaginary  rock,  or  stick,  or  stub,  there  is  ani- 
mal life,  which  will  take  to  itself  legs  or  wings  when  opportu- 
nity of  easy  escape  offers." 

Icebergs,  which  have  a  great  influence  on  the  climate  of  Lab- 
rador, ar(^  thus  described  by  BalUuityne,  when  passing  through 
Hudson  Strait :  "  It  is  impossible  to  convey  a  correct  idea  of 
the  beauty,  the  magnificence,  of  some  of  the  scenes  through 
which  we  passed.  Thousands  of  the  most  grotesque,  fanciful, 
and  beautiful  icebergs  and  ice-fields,  surrounded  us  on  all  sides, 
intersected  by  numerous  serpentine  canals,  which  glittered  in 
the  sun  like  threads  of  silver,  twining  round  ruined  palaces  of 
crystal.  The  masses  assumed  every  variety  of  form  and  size, 
and  many  of  them  bore  such  a  striking  resemblance  to  cathe- 
drals, churches,  columns,  arches,  and  spires,  that  I  could  almost 
fancy  we  had  been  transported  to  one  of  the  floating  cities  of 
Fairy-land.  The  weather  being  pleasant,  with  a  light  breeze,  not 
a  sound  disturbed  the  stillness  of  nature,  save  the  gentle  rip- 
pling of  the  vessel's  bow  as  sue  sped  on  her  Avay,  or  the  occa- 
sional puffing  of  a  lazy  whale,  aw^pei^Bd  from  a  nap  by  our  un- 
ceremonious intrusion  on  his  domains." 


8T1U1TS  OF  BELLE-ISLE. 


63 


m 
of 


of 

lOt 

P- 
a- 

u- 


Straits  of  Belle-Isle. 

Meteohological  Journal  kept  at  Bellc-Islc  Li<?litliouBP,  by  Capt,  D.  Vaughan, 
from  May,  185!),  to  tho  end  of  April,  1800. 

PoaiTioN.— North  latitiulo  51^  30' ;  West  longitude  65'  30',— 
off  the  coast  of  Labrador. 


Date. 


May, 


1859, 


June 

<< 

33° 

G5° 

July, 

(( 

39° 

G8° 

August, 

<( 

37° 

64° 

September, 

(< 

31° 

61° 

October, 

(( 

25° 

46° 

November, 

(( 

5° 

39° 

December, 

<( 

12° 

30° 

January,    1860,  —20° 


Temporature.  Remarks. 

Lowest.     Ilifi^hest. 

24°       47°     May  27— The  first  steam-ship 
passed  inward  bound. 

May  29  — 120  icebergs  were 
visible. 

June  30 — 22  icebergs  still  visi- 
ble. Durmg  the  month  there 
was  constant  hazy  weather. 

Some  fog  almost  every  day  this 
month,  and  several  vessels 
wrecked. 

Icebergs  in  sight,  except  on 
eleven  days  this  month. 

A  few  icebergs  visible,  except 
nine  days  this  month. 

This  Avas  a  very  stormy  month ; 
on  the  7th  there  was  a  hur- 
ricane. 
39°  Nov.  1 — The  last  steamer  pass- 
ed out.  This  was  consider- 
ed a  pleasant  month. 

Dec.  5. — The  Strait   was   one 

sheet  of  field-ice  as  far  as 

can  1)0  seen. 

30°     Some  icebergs  groimded,  and 

remained     in    sight      until 


sprmg. 

32°  There  was  no  thawing  weather 
at  Belle-Isle  during  the  win- 
ter. 

38°  March  22. — The  warmest  day 
during  the  month. 

38°  April  14. — A  brig  passed  in- 
ward. The  month  was 
stormy  and  foggy. 

Coldest  day,  20°  below  zero  ;  hottest,  68°  above ;  variation, 
88°  Fahrenheit.    Mean  annual  temperature,  35°. 


February, 

March, 
April, 


(C 


« 


« 


-13° 

-2° 
6° 


ll.l 


. 


I  f 


01 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Climate  of  Newfoundland. 


"  Tlioro  is  notliin^  in  ^vlli('ll  tho  (tlijiiato  of  Newfoundland  dif- 
foi'R  nioro  from  tliiit  of  ( Junuda,  and  tho  adjacent  provincoH,  than 
in  its  (^xtr(;in(!  vicissitudes.  SjU'in}^'  cojues  more  slowly  tlian  in 
('anada,  the  snnuiKU'  is  shorten',  the  autumn  less  certain,  tlu; 
winter  a  scrioH  of  storms  of  wind,  rain,  and  snow  ;  the  last  rarely 
rennaius  on  th(!  f.,'rouiid  for  any  considiir.ihle  lenj^tli  of  tinn^,  ajid 
the  frost  is  never,  oi-  very  rarely,  ho  intense  as  it  is  in  Uppcu- 
Canada,  several  dej^'rees  more  to  the  south. 

"  All  this  may,  perha])S,  be  accounted  for  hy  its  insularity, 
and  its  lyin;:?  at  the  (nnlxnichure  of  the  f^'rtiat  valley  oi  St.  Law- 
renc(>,  whilst  the  fro/en  and  -lesolate  re<{i(nis  to  tho  northwest 
of  Labrador  and  Hudson  l^ay,  cause  the  pnn'ailin^  winds  to 
sweep  over  it,  loaded  with  a  varyinj^  and  reduced  tempcu-atiu'e  of 
tho  air  ;  and  then  in  the  early  spring  vast  masses  of  ice  iVom 
Hudson  Straits  and  East  CJrecnland  are  forced  alonp;  its  At- 
lantic coast  by  a  southerly  curr(;nt,  where  they  consolidate  or 
}j;rind,  until  they  are  evenluiflly  fonunl  off  by  mihhu'  air,  and  l)y 
the  increasing  warmth  of  the  ocean,  Avhere  they  are  sunk  in  the 
t(!])id  watei'S  of  the  (lulf  Stream. 

"If  the  laws  c^'  (dimate  were  regulated  by  tin;  thermal  zones 
which  j)hilosoph(;rs  have  drawn  rourd  the  globe,  Newfoundland 
would  bo  an  abode  for  man,  e(|ually  free  from  groat  heats  and 
from  intense  cold,  as  it  lies  in  n(>arly  the  saiiu;  ])arallels  as 
Fi'ance  ;  Avhereas,  it  has  the  geni'ral  teuqoeratun,'  of  the  Euro- 
})ean  countries,  situated  fifteen  or  twenty  degrees  higher  than 
the  north(!rn  shores  of  that  fertile  country. •• 

"Various  attcuiq.ts  have  Ijoou  made  to  ac(!Ount  satisfactorily 
for  this  scMMuing  anomaly  Ijotween  the  climates  of  the  (jld  and 
New  World,  as  is  most  wonderfully  exhibited  on  this  island  and 
ou  the  coast  of  Labrador.  The  th(!Oiy  of  winds  is  still,  how- 
.  _r,  in  its  infancy,  but  that  th(>y  are  allectc^d  iji  their  ])assage 
i>.vor  bleak  howling  wildernesses,  cannot  be  doubted.  In  CJani,  la, 
and  overywlu^ro  in  N(nth  Anunica,  <'ast  of  the  llocky  Moun- 
tains, a  wind  fr<nn  the  ncn'thwest  invarialdy  lowers  the  ther- 
momotei",  and  in  winter  causes  excessive!  (told,  ('anada,  Labra- 
d<n',  and  N(!wf(nind)and  are  the  region  of  lak(!s  ;  and  these;,  when 
frozcm,  of  course  increase  tho  fury  and  bitt(:rness  of  a  stcu'm 
from  that  ({uaiti'r;  but  although  Newfoundland  is  but  little  re- 
moved from  Labrador,  the  coldest  country  in  the  world,  and 
from  (Jape  Bniton  and  Nova  Setotia,  wUore  frost  reigns  in  all  its 
vigor  in  winter,  it  is  not  so  cold  as  other  parts  of  tho  American 
Continent  lying  Bovoral  degrees  further  to  tho  south.    The  thor- 

*  Tho  mean  annunl  tempo ruturo  of  St.  John,  N.  F.,  47^°  north,  is  tho  Sftino  as 
St.  Potcraburg,  Kusbhi,  (JO'  North  lutitudo,  III)"  Fuhroiiheit. 


CLIMATE   OF   NKWFOUNDIAND. 


65 


momctor  rarcily  falls  to  zero  in  winter,  which  IjihIh  from  tho  lio- 
^'inniiif,'  of  ])cc(niil)(;r  until  tlu;  iniddlo  of  April  ;  January  and 
l<\'uruary  being  the  <;ol(l(!st  nioniliH,  and  the  latter  the  niosL 


Htor 


■my 


It  is  ^(inerally  supjjosed  that  Newfoundland  is  ('(mstantly 
enveloped  in  \\)<^  and  w(!t  mist ;  nothini^  liowcivcn',  can  1)0 
further  from  the  truth.  'I'Ik!  Kummers  ar<!  fr(!(juently  so  hot 
and  so  dry,  that  for  want  of  lain  the  graHH  perishes — and  the 
nif^dits  are  usually  splendid  ;  whilst,  in  wint(U-,  fof^  is  very  rarely 
seen.  Tho  fo;^'  hcung  {^(nierated  at  sea,  by  causcis  which  do 
not  opcsrate  upon  the  land,  is  a  true  H(!a-mist,  which  may  b(! 
observed  in  a  voya<j;e  across  the  Athantic,  all  tlu!  way  fiom  the 
west  c(«ist  of  Ireland,  by  k(!epiiig  in  a  high  latitude;,  until  the 
vcHHel  reaches  Newfoundland.  Fog  <ni  the  shores,  in  summer, 
prevails  with  an  easterly  wind  ;  west  and  southwesterly  winds 
l)ruig  rain.  The  most  remaikable  ftiatures  in  the  (dimate  of 
Newfoundland  are  the /(Kf.H  on  i/s  iMiiiks — which  do  not  usually 
extend  to  the  shores  or  inland,  there  frequently  being  a  clear 
spaco  or  Ijelt  next  tin;  coast — and  the  ju'evalentio  of  heavy 
winds." — Ji(ju)n/<usll(\s  Newfoundland. 

Tho  following  is  the  mean  temperature  of  the  four  seasons, 
and  tho  yearly  t(?mi)eraturo  of  St.  John,  the  capit;\l  of  New- 
foundland, situated  cm  the  southwest  part  of  tho  island,  in  North 
latitude  AT'  'SS 


Spring, 
Summer, 


West  longitude  52  '  4.']'. 


MEAN  TliMl'EKATUItES. 

.     32.;J0''     Autumn, 
.     54'^  Winter, 


43.80" 
23.20^ 


Yearly  Moan,  8U"  Fahrenheit. 


^0  08 


I 


i 

^ 


60 


INFLUENCE   OF  CLIMATE. 


Meteorological  Table. 


fnoW'IXO  THE   8TTUATI0N,    AI-TITIDE,    MEAN    ANNIAL   TEMPERATURB,    ETC.,  OF 
THE   I'KINCIPAL   CITIES   AND  POSTS   IX   BHITISII    AND  ilLSSIAN   AMEIUCA. 


Cities,  eto 


Fort  Good  Hope,  11.  B.  Ter. . 

Yukon,  Hussian  America 

Fort  Frankliu,  II.  IJ.  Ter. . . . 

Fort  Reliance,        "  

Fort  Hope  "  .... 

Fort  Enterprise,  "  .... 
Fort  Mmijson,         '•         .... 

Fort  I/uird,  "         

Fort  ( liepcwyan,   "         .... 

Fort  Churcliill        "  

York  Factory,         "         

Sitka,  Russian  America 

lluluk,  Alaska;  Russian  Am. 

Hebron,  Labrador 

Okak,  "         

Nain,  "         

Oxford  House,  IT.  B.  'J"er. . . . 
Norway  House,  "     .... 

Cumberland  House,  "  .... 
Cliesterfield  House,  "  .... 
Moosi'  Factory,  "     .... 

Fort  tiary,  "    .... 

Pembina  (Boundary  Line)  . . 

Fort  William,  L.  S 

Michipicoten       "    . .    

Saut  tte.  Marie,  C.  ^V 

Bruce  Mines,  "     

Quebec,  I '.  E 

bt,  John,  N.  F 

( 'harlottestown,  Pr.  Ed.  Is, , . 

Frederickton,  N,  B 

yt.  John's,  "    

Pictou,  N.  S 

Halifax,     '    

WoHVille,  N.  S 

Montreal,  C.  E 

Stanbridge,  "  

Ottawa  City,  C.  W 

i'rescott,  "     

Kingston,  "     

Penetanguishene,  C.  W 

CoUingwood,  "     

Godorich,  "     

Tonmto,  "     

Hamilton,  '•     

Niagara,  "     

Sarnia,  ''     

Waterloo,  "     

Windsor  "     

.\mherstburg,  "     


67°00' 
GG°00' 
05"  12' 
02  4(1 

0(ry2' 

04''28' 
01  oO' 

5!)'  m 

58 -4;}' 
59^00' 
oT'OO' 
57-00' 

53  52' 
58'00' 
57  no' 
57^0' 
54°55' 

54  00' 
.5:5  57' 
51'()0' 
51  15' 
50  15' 
4900' 
48  2;]' 
47  56' 
40  81' 
40  15' 
40' 4i)' 

47  ;i3' 
40  15 

4()  (y.y 

45' 10' 
45  84' 
44;J9' 
45  00' 
45  80 
45  OS' 
45  28' 
44  42' 
44  14 
44''48' 
44  80' 

48  44' 
48"89' 
48  15' 
48  18 
42  58' 
42  55' 
42  20 
42  05' 


B 

o 


isroo' 

147  00' 
124'00' 
109  00' 


]18°00' 

121 '57' 

121=00' 

iir48' 

98°10' 

92 -20' 

185-18' 

100'25' 

04O0' 

08O0' 

0200' 

90 '28' 

98'00' 

102  20' 

110  00' 

80  45' 

97"00' 

99O0' 

89^27' 

85  00' 

84'=48' 

84  00' 

7ri0' 

52  43' 

08' 00' 

00  08' 

02  42' 
G8"87' 
04  25' 

78  80' 
73' 00' 
7542' 
75  80' 
70=84' 
80  40' 

80  20' 

81  43' 

79  21' 
79'57' 
79  08' 

82  25' 
79  00' 
82°57' 
82  58' 


Feet. 


500 
000 


800 

400 

500 

700 

20 

20 

50 

"  50 


050 
900 


700 
080  1 
020 
020 
(iOO  I 
570 
100 
140 


95 
00 

200 
280 
275 
000 
576 
570 
843 
275 
250 
572 
505 
570 
505 


a 
w 
i>* 

Falir. 
12" 
16° 
17° 

14° 
20° 
80° 
32'- 
19° 
26° 
42= 
40° 
22° 
28° 


80° 

83° 

39° 

27° 

86° 

38° 

36  = 

88= 

40= 

40° 

40i' 

39^ 

40° 

42° 

43= 

42° 

48*^ 

45° 

45° 

43° 

42  .r 

44" 

45° 

43  rt' 

44" 
45° 

44  r 

48'' 
47" 
46° 
47° 
47° 
48° 


FOUB  SKA80N8. 


B 

•c 


9 


B 

s 

s 


14° 
15° 
13° 

-4° 

8° 
27° 


24° 
13° 
19° 
40° 
86° 
18° 
25° 
3  ° 
25° 
28° 
33° 


58° 
50° 

58° 
55° 
59° 


36° 


85° 

(J  i 

38° 
37° 
88° 
33° 
39° 
4'.° 
40° 
38^ 
39° 

43° 


59° 
52° 
54"= 
54° 
53° 
43° 
49° 
50° 

0("»° 
62° 


18° 
28° 

is° 

17° 
28° 


34° 
23° 
33° 
44° 
39° 
31° 
33° 
33° 

30° 
34° 


68° 


59° 
62° 
02° 
00' 
54° 
(i3° 
05° 
63° 
68° 
63° 

70° 


40° 


44° 
3;)° 


41° 
44° 
44° 
43° 

44° 
40° 

47° 


67° 
68° 


08° 
74° 
69° 
07° 
08° 
68° 
09' 


38° 
41° 
44° 
43° 

44° 
44° 
42° 
47° 
48° 
47° 
49° 

4.5° 


45° 
45° 


47° 
50° 
51° 
49° 
48° 
48° 
49° 


-23° 
-10° 
-20° 
-25° 
-24" 
-14° 


—14° 

t) 

32° 
32° 

—  1° 
4° 
0° 

-15° 

—  3° 
0° 


8° 

i6° 
16° 
18° 
19° 
14" 
23° 
18° 
19° 
21° 
20° 
24° 

18° 


23° 


24° 
27° 
27° 
^6° 

27° 
27° 
28* 


PABT    IV. 


CLIMATIC  DIVISION  OF  CANADA. 


Can.' 


ds  in  length  fr< 


-24° 
-14° 


—  ;r 

32° 

32° 

_  1° 

4° 

0° 

-15° 

—  2° 

0° 


8° 

10° 
16° 
18° 
19° 
14" 
23° 
18° 
19° 
2V 
20° 
24° 

18° 


2;; 

09.' 


24° 


the  coast  of  Labrador  52° 
north  latitude,  westwardly,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kaministiqiia 
River,  where  stauds  Fort  William,  in  latitude  48^^  23'  near  the 
■svestern  extremity  of  Lake  Superior,  about  sixteen  hundred 
miles  ;  the  average  breadth  is  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 
It  contains  an  area  of  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
square  miles,  and  is  washed  by  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  on  the  east,  and  by  the  waters  of  the  Great  Lakes  of 
Americu  on  the  west. 

This  important  region  of  country  Hes  between  the  41st  and 
52d  parallels  of  north  latitude,  and  the  meridians  of  Gl "and  90'^ 
west  fi'om  Greenwich,  The  range  of  mean  annual  temperature 
varies  from  35^  on  the  north,  to  48-'  Fahr.  on  the  south.  The 
winters  being  excessively  cold  in  the  Lower  or  E;>3iern  Province, 
and  the  summers  warm  ;  while  in  the  Upper  or  Western  Prov- 
ince the  cold  and  heat  are  modified  by  the  Great  Lakes  lying 
on  its  southern  border. 

The  natural  features  of  Tapper  and  Lower  Canada  are, 
for  the  most  iiavi,  very  difierent.  Li  Lower  Canada,  the 
scenery  is  of  a  far  bolder  character  than  in  Upper.  On  the 
lower  part  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  both  sides  of  the  river  are 
mountainous,  and  on  the  northern  side  the  range  which  nins  as 
far  as  the  vicinity  of  Quebec  presents  the  most  subUme  and 
picturesque  beauties.  On  the  southern  side,  the  highlands  or 
mountains  which  divide  the  waters  flowing  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence from  those  running  into  the  St.  John's  and  other  rivers 
of  Maine,  commence  in  the  District  of  Gaspr,  and  about 
sixty  miles  below  Quebec,  turn  off  and  enter  the  United 
States,  forming,  in  part,  tbe  boundary  between  the  two 
countries. 


27° 
28' 


68 


INFLUENCE   OF  CIJMATE. 


'i\ 


Tbo  District  of  Gaspi'-,  facing  the  Gulf  of  Bt.  La^Tenco,  being 
mostly  surrounded  by  Avater,  lias  a  mild  and  favorable  Slim- 
mer climate,  while  the  cold  of  winter  is  perceptibly  modified  by 
the  same  caase.  Tlie  lands  in  this  distinct  are  composed  of  a 
light  but  fertile  soil,  producing  most  kinds  of  grain  and  vege- 
tables in  abundance ;  the  pot^itoes  in  particular  being  highly 
esteemed  for  their  fine  quality  and  flavor.  Tliero  are  also 
found  a  variety  of  forest  trees  producing  an  abundance  of  tim- 
ber for  ship-building  and  other  purposes.  The  great  pine  region 
of  Canada,  which  may  be  said  to  extend  from  Haguenay  to  the 
8t,  Maurice  ami  Ottawa  Rivers,  and  even  farther  inland,  aftbrd 
the  great  wealth  and  distinctive  feature  of  Canada  in  a  com- 
mercial point  of  view. 

The  large  extent  of  uninhabited  country  lying  north  of  tho 
isothermal  lino  of  40'-'  mean  annual  temperature,  and  along  tho 
47tli  parallel  of  latitude,  embracing  the  northern  half  of 
Canada,  is  almost  entirely  unfit  for  cultivation,  owing  to  tho 
absence  of  continued  warm  weather  during  the  summer  months ; 
this  whole  region  being  subject  to  killing  frosts  every  month  of 
the  year."  It  is,  however,  valuable  for  its  timber,  minerals, 
and  fur-bearing  animals. 

The  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  below  its  junction  with  the 
Ottawa  Eiver,  embracing  the  Eastern  Townships,  has  a  favor- 
able and  healthy  climate  ;  the  soil  producing  all  kinds  of  cereals 
and  vegbliables,  as  well  as  nutritious  grasses.  The  Island  of 
Orleans,  below  Quebec,  and  tho  Island  of  Montreal  and  its 
vicinity,  may  be  called  tho  "  gardens  of  Lower  Canada,"  where 
is  produced  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  vegetables,  and  many  kinds 
of  fniit.  Tho  mean  annual  temperature  varying  from  40^  to 
45°  Fahr,,  having  a  summer  heat,  for  the  most  part,  as  high  as 
Central  Ncav  York  or  Northern  Illinois. 

The  healthy  influence  of  this  great  valley  is  proverbial — ^its 
inhabitants  being  a  ^dgorous  and  long-lived  class  of  people. 
Here  thousands  of  seekers  after  health  and  pleasure  resort  dur- 
ing the  summer  months,  enjoying  alike  the  beautiful  river  and 
mountain  scenery,  with  a  healthy  and  invigorating  chmate.  Tho 
cold  winter  weather  continues  fi'ora  Dec.  to  March,  inclusive. 


*  This  depressing  influenco  is  caused,  no  doubt,  from  tho  cold,  chilly  wuids 
coming  oil'  lludisuu  Bay  and  tho  mure  northern  cold  region. 


CLIMATIC   DIVISION   OF  CANADA.  69 

ITprER,  or  Western  Canada,  is  comprisccl  Avitliin  the  parallels 
of  41^  to  49^  north,  and  the  meridians  of  74  -^  to  90'^  west  of  Green- 
wich, and  embraces  an  area  of  aljont  one  hundred  thousand 
square  miles.  As  compared  Avith  tlio  Lower  Province,  Upper 
Canada  is  in  general  a  level  champaign  country,  with  gentle  un- 
dulating hills  and  rich  vallcvs.  At  a  distance  of  from  fifty  to 
one  liundred  miles  north  of  Lake  Ontario,  there  is  a  ridge  of 
high  rocky  country  running  towards  the  OttaAva  or  Grand  lUver, 
bcliind  which  there  is  a  Avido  and  rich  valley  of  great  extent, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  a  mountainous  country,  of  still  higher 
elevation.  From  the  division  line  on  Lake  St.  Francis,  (near 
Fond  du  Lac)  to  Sandwich,  along  the  shores  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  there  is  not  an  elevation  of 
any  consequence  ;  and  throughout  this  extent  the  soil  is  gene- 
rally remarkably  rich,  and  the  climate  sahibrious. 

The  following  Extracts,  from  a  Brief  Outline  of  Canada,  pub- 
lished by  authority,  will  convc}-  a  correct  idea  of  the  climate  of 
Canada  West. 

"  The  most  erroneous  opinions  have  prevailed  abroad  respect- 
ing the  climate  of  Canada.  The  so-called  rigor  of  Canadian 
winters  is  often  advanced  as  a  serious  objection  io  the  country 
by  many  who  have  iiot  the  courage  to  encouiiter  them,  who 
prefer  sleet  and  fog  to  brilliant  skies  and  bracing  cold,  and  who 
have  yet  to  learn  the  value  and  extent  of  the  blessings  conferred 
upon  Canada  by  her  world-renowned  '  snows.' 

"  It  will  scarcely  be  believed  by  many  who  shudder  at  the 
idea  of  the  thermometer  falling  to  zero,  that  the  gradual  annual 
diminution  m  the  fall  of  snow  in  certain  localities,  is  a  subject 
of  lamentation  to  the  farmer  in  Western  Canada.  Their  desire 
is  for  the  old-fashioned  winters,  with  sleighing  for  four  months, 
and  spring  bursting  upon  them  with  marvellous  beauty  at  the 
beginning  of  April.  A  bountiful  fall  of  snow,  with  hard  frost, 
is  equivalent  to  the  construction  of  the  best  macadamized  roads 
all  over  the  country.  The  absence  of  a  suflicient  quantity  of 
snov/  in  winter  for  sleighing,  is  a  calamity  as  nuich  to  be  feared 
and  deplored  as  the  want  ot  rain  in  sprmg.  Hajipily  neither  of 
these  deprivations  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  climate  of 
Canada  is  in  some  measure  exceptional,  especially  that  of  the 
Peninsular  portion.  The  influence  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  very 
strikingly  ftdt  in  the  elevation  of  winter  temperatures  and  in 
the  reduction  of  summer  heats. 

*'  Perhaps  the  popular  standard  of  the  adaptation  of  climate 


I 


I 


n 


!  ! 


I     ■ 


!  ! 


70 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLI3IATE. 


to  the  purposes  of  agiiculturo  is  more  suitable  for  the  present 
occasion  than  a  reference  to  monthly  and  unmial  means  of  tem- 
perature. Much  information  is  conveyed  in  the  simple  narra- 
tion of  facts  bearinf^  u])on  fruit  culture.  From  the  head  of  Lake 
Ontario,  round  by  the  Niagara  fi'ontier,  and  all  along  the  (y'ana- 
dian  shores  of  Lake  Erie,  the  grape  and  ])eac]i  grow  with  luxu- 
riance, and  ri])en  to  perfection  in  the  open  air,  Avithout  the 
slightest  artificial  aid.  Tlie  Island  of  Montreal  is  distingiiished 
everywhere  for  the  fine  quality  of  its  apples,  and  the  Island  of 
Orleans,  below  Quebec,  is  equally  celebrated  for  its  plums. 
Over  the  whole  of  Canada  the  melon  and  tomato  acquire  large 
dimensions,  and  ripen  fuUy  in  the  oi)en  air,  the  seeds  being 
planted  in  the  soil  towards  the  latter  end  of  A]iril,  and  the  fruit 
gathered  in  September.  Pumpkins  and  squashes  attain  gigan- 
tic dimensions.  Indian  corn,  hops,  and  tobacco,  are  common 
crops,  and  yield  fair  returns.  Hemp  and  fhix  are  intligenous 
plants,  and  can  be  cultivated  to  any  extent  in  many  parts  of 
the  Province. 

"  The  most  striking  illustrati  m  of  the  mfluence  of  the  Great 
Lakes  in  ameliorating  the  climate  of  Canada,  especially  of  tliu 
western  peninsula,  is  to  be  found  in  the  natural  limits  to  which 
certain  trees  are  restricted  by  climate.  That  valuable  Avood, 
the  black  walnut,  for  which  Canada  is  so  celel)rated,  ceases  to 
grow  north  of  latitude  41^  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  under  the 
influence  of  the  comparatively  mild  lake  climate  of  Peninsular 
Canada  it  is  found  in  the  greatest  profusion,  and  of  the  largest 
dimensions,  as  far  north  as  latitude  43'^." 

Dr.  Lillie,  in  his  "Essay  on  Canada,"  remarks,  that  "Prof. 
Hind  holds  the  climate  of  Canada  West  to  be  sui)crior  to  those 
portions  of  the  L^nited  States  lying  north  of  the  41st  parallel  of 
latitude,  in  mildness — in  adaptation  to  the  growth  of  cereals — 
in  the  uniformity  of  tlie  distribution  of  rain  over  the  agricultu- 
ral months — in  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere — in  comparative 
indemnity  from  spring  frosts  and  summer  droughts — in  a  very 
favorable  distribution  of  clear  and  cloudy  days  for  the  purposes 
of  agriculture — and  in  the  distribiition  of  rain  over  many  days 
— as  also  in  its  salubrity.  In  the  following  points  he  regards  it 
as  difiering  favorably  from  that  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
viz.  : — in  high  summer  means  of  temperature — in  its  compara- 
tive dryness — and  in  the  serenity  of  the  sky." 

Climate  of  Canada,  as  described  by  Early  French  Authors. 

"  The  first  Europeans  who  came  to  Canada  were  surprised  to 
observe  the  remarkable  difl'arence  between  the  temperature  of 
the  Old  World  and  of  the  New,  under  the  same  parallels  of  lati- 


5 


:--;'X, 


CLIJLVTE  OF  CANADA, 


71 


fa 

It 


ttido.  Tlmr;  Quebec,  40'^  50'  north  latitude,  is  hardly  more 
northerly  tlmu  La  Eooholle,  I'riinco,  ■while  it  is  more  than  two 
degrees  to  the  south  of  Paris,  and  yet  the  ■winters  of  the  ancient 
capital  of  Canada  are  much  more  rigorous  than  that  of  those 
two  European  cities.  It  had  been  thought  that,  according  to  a 
general  rule,  the  intensity  of  cold  and  the  rigor  of  climate  in- 
creased in  proportion  as  the  Poles  Avere  approached,  but  in 
Canada  these  calculations  were  found  to  be  at  fault. 

"  Father  Bressaui,  an  early  writer  on  the  sul)ject,  says  :  '  The 
first  Frenchmen  who  mhabited  the  country  ])elieved  that  th(^ 
immense  forests  ■which  entirely  covered  it,  Avere  the  cause  of 
such  an  excessive  cold.  For  my  part,  I  thiidc  that  if  the  forests, 
naked  and  leafless  as  they  are  in  winttu',  can  keep  the  sun  from 
■warming  the  earth  and  tempering  the  rigor  of  the  cold,  they 
should  be  a  still  greatcn-  shield  in  summer,  when  they  are  decked 
■with  thick  foliage.  They  do  not,  however,  produce  that  efiect ; 
for  the  heat,  even  in  the  middle  of  these  ■woods,  is  then  ex- 
cessive, although  it  freezes  during  certaui  nights,  just  as  in 
winter.'  " 

"  The  histoi'ian  CHiarlevoix  is  of  a  different  opinion,  and  thinks 
that,  even  in  his  time,  the  clearings  had  made  some  difi'erenci' 
in  the  temperature,  and  rendered  it  less  cold  than  in  the  first 
years  of  the  colony's  existence.  In  our  day,  the  encjuiry  is 
sometimes  made,  whether  the  destruction  of  the  great  forests 
which  there  were  on  the  l)anks  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  has  caused 
any  improvement  iu  the  climate  of  the  country — and  the  ques- 
tion is  a  very  interesting  one,  which  it  is  worth  while  examin- 
ing. As  reasoning  could  not  possibly  shed  any  light  on  the 
subject,  wo  have  tlirown  together  some  meteorological  obser- 
vations, of  a  nature  to  enable  us  to  see  whether  there  are 
grounds  for  hope  that  the  severity  of  our  climate  Avill  be  abated. 

■'  The  oldest  observations  made  as  to  the  temperature  of 
Canada  arc  those  of  Jacques  Cartier,  during  the  winter  of 
1535-3G,  which  he  spent  near  the  River  St.  Charles,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  present  site  of  Quebec.  '  From  the  middle  of 
November,'  says  he,  'iintil  the  18tli  of  April,  we  Avere  con- 
tinuously shut  up  in  the  ice,  Avhicli  was  more  than  two  fathoms 
(brasses)  thick,  and,  on  land,  the  snow  was  four  feet  deep  and 
more,  so  that  it  was  above  the  Inilwarks  of  our  shi]i,  and  it 
lasted  until  the  time  above  mentioned,  so  that  all  our  drink  was 
frozen  in  our  casks,  ^'  '*  *  and  all  the  said  river  (St.  Law- 
rence) was  frozen,  as  nuich  of  it  as  is  fresh  Avater,  as  far  as 
above  Hochelaga,'  noAv  Montreal. 

"  So,  during  the  Avinter  that  Cartier  spent  at  Stadaconc 
(Quebec),  more  than  three  centuries  ago,  the  ice  took  about 
tlie  middle  of  Noveudjcr,  and  the  thaAv  occurred  about  the  mid- 


!*  r 


I!!    :!i' 


72 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


(llo  of  April  (a  period  of  five  montlis) ;  the  earth  was  covered 
with  a  sheet  of  snow,  four  feet  thick. 

"  About  eight  years  hater,  Jean  Alphouse,  pilot  to  the  Lord 
(Sienr)  of  Roberval,  made  the  remarks  which  follow  : — '  The 
whole  extent  of  these  regions  may  well  be  called  New  France, 
for  the  air  is  as  temperate  as  in  Franco,  and  they  are  situated 
in  the  same  latitude.  The  reason  why  they  are  so  cold  in  win- 
ter "iS,  that  the  fresh  water  river  is  naturally  colder  than  the 
sea,  and  also  because  it  is  wide  and  deep,  and  in  some  places 
is  more  than  half  a  league  in  width,  and  also  because  the  land 
is  not  cultivated  nor  full  of  people,  but  altogether  covered  with 
forests,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  cold.  *  ••■  "^"  '■•'  -'  If  the 
country  were  cidtivated  and  fully  inhabited,  it  would  be  as 
warm  as  at  La  RochcUe  ;  and  the  reason  Avhy  it  snows  of  tener 
than  in  France  is  because  it  rains  less.' 

"  These  remarks  contain  nothing  precise  ;  they  only  show 
that  it  was  expected  that  the  climate  would  become  milder  in 
proportion  as  settlements  extended.  Let  us  pass  on  to  the  ob- 
servations of  Champlain. 

"  1608,  October  3d. — Some  white  fi'ost  appeared,  and  the 
leaves  of  trees  began  to  fall  on  the  15th.  24:th.  I  had  some  of 
the  vines  of  the  country  planted.  November  18,  a  quantity  of 
snow  foil,  but  only  remained  on  the  ground  two  days. 

"  1613. — Wlien  Champlain  arrived  at  Quebec,  on  the  7th  of 
May.  the  trees  were  putting  forth  leaves,  and  the  fields  Avere 
variegated  with  fiowers.  The  winter  had  been  mild  and  the 
river  free  from  ice. 

"  1623,  March  19th. — A  violent  storm,  accompanied  with 
wind,  hail,  thunder  and  lightning,  although  at  this  time  the  air 
is  stiil  cold,  and  the  country  full  of  snow  and  ice.  April  16th, 
there  was  a  foot  of  snow  in  some  parts.  '20th  of  said  month, 
grain  was  sown  behind  the  house,  where  the  snow  had  melted 
sooner  than  in  other  places,  being  sheltered  fi'oni  the  northwest 
wind. 

"  Towards  the  end  of  November,  the  River  St.  Charles  was 
almost  covered  with  ice.  From  the  btiguming  to  the  end  of 
November  the  weather  was  very  variable,  and  the  days  were 
chiefly  pretty  cold  mornings  with  frost,  although  it  was  usually 
fine  the  rest  of  the  day  :  there  Avas  sometimes  rain  nnd  snow, 
which  often  melted  as  it  fell.  We  remarked  that  there  is  not  a 
fortnight's  ditference  between  the  commencement  of  whiter  tem- 
perature, one  year  with  the  other,  that  is  to  say,  from  the  20th 
of  November  until  April,  Avhcn  tlio  snow  melts,  and  Ma}^  is  the 
spring-time  ;  making  six  months  of  frost  and  six  months  of  mild 
weather  for  tliis  region.     Some  years  the  snow  is  deeper  than 


CLIMATE  OF  CANADA. 


73 


■o 


others,  the  depth  being  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  or  four 
feet  at  most,  on  the  lo.\o\  coxiniry. 

"December  lOtli. — The  River  St.  La^vTence  was  filled  with 
ice,  and  the  shore  ice  taking,  navigation  stopped. 

"  1(524:,  April  l8tli. — This  is  the  time  for  hunting  game,  which 
is  very  pL^ntiful  imtil  the  end  of  Ma}-,  when  the  birds  go  back 
to  lay  their  eggs,  and  only  come  again  towards  the  15th  of  Sep- 
tember, Avluni  you  can  shoot  imtil  the  ice  takes  along  the  shore, 
whicli  is  al)out  the  2()th  of  November. 

"  May  8th. — I'he  cherry-trees  begin  to  open  their  buds  to  lot 
the  leaves  grow ;  at  the  same  time  little  grey  and  Avhite  lloAvers 
shoot  from  the  ground,  which  are  the  first  fruits  of  spring  in 
these  regions.  Oth.  Strawberries  began  to  bud,  and  all  herbs 
to  spring  up  out  of  the  earth.  12ih.  White  violets  were  seen 
in  })loom.  15th.  Trees  were  budding  out,  and  cherry-trees 
covei'ed  with  foliage  ;  wheat  had  gro\m  a  span  high,  and  in 
tlio  fields  the  sorrel  was  two  inches  high.  18th.  The  birch- 
trees  put  forth  leaves,  the  other  forest  trees  following  close 
after  ;  the  oak  had  its  1)uds  formed,  and  the  apple-trees,  which 
had  been  brought  from  Erance,  as  well  as  the  plum-trees, 
began  to  blossom,  and  Indian  corn  was  sown.  29th.  Strawber- 
ries began  to  blossom,  and  the  oaks  to  ])ut  out  pretty  large 
summer  leaves.  30th.  Strawberries  were  aU  in  l)lossom  ;  apple- 
trees  began  to  open  tlieir  leaf-buds  ;  the  oaks  had  their  leaves 
about  an  inch  long ;  the  plum  and  cherry-trees  were  in  flower, 
and  Indian  corn  began  to  come  up." 

Now,  then,  here  is  what  Father  Lalemant^  superior  of  the 
museum  in  Canada,  Avrote  to  his  brother  in  the  year  1G2G  : — 

"  The  place  where  the  French  have  domiciled  themselves 
called  Kcbec,  is  on  the  parallel  of  about  'KJ  degrees  and  a  half, 
on  the  banks  of  one  of  the  most  beaxitihil  rivers  in  the  world. 
But,  although  the  latitude  of  the  country  where  we  are  is  nearly 
two  degrees  to  the  south  of  Paris,  yet  tJie  winter  is  usiially  five 
months  and  a  haU'  in  lengtli,  the  snow  three  or  for.r  feet  deep, 
and  so  lasting,  tliat  they  do  not  generally  melt  until  the  middle 
of  April,  although  they  always  begin  in  the  month  of  Novem- 
ber. During  that  time  yon  cannot  see  the  earth,  and  our  French 
people  have  even  told  me  that  they  have  drawn  a  sleigh  in  Ma}'. 

"  The  mildest  winter  ever  known  is  that  last  past,  so  say  the 
old  inhabitants  ;  yet  the  snow  began  to  fall  on  the  IGth  of  No- 
vember, and  to  melt  tow'ards  the  end  of  March.  The  length  of 
time  the  snow  lasts  is  such,  you  Avould  hardly  think  wheat  and 
barley  could  grow  very  well  lu^re  ;  I  have,  however,  seen  crops 
of  them  just  as  fine  as  m  Fnince. 

"  From  the  mou^ii  of  the  St.  Lawrence  up  to  this  there  is  no 
cleared  land — all  is  forest.     These  people  do  not  engage  in 


ii  n 


74 


'^TTiUENCE  OP  CUMATE. 


liusbaridry ;  tlioro  aro  only  three  or  four  families  -wlio  have 
cleared  two  or  three  acres,  where  thoy  sow  Indian  corn."* 

Well,  this  was  the  climutt!  of  the  neighborliood  of  Quebec 
240  years  ago,  at  the  time  Avlien  tlie  French  had  ouly  cleared  a 
few  score  of  acres :  the  winter  began  in  November,  and  termi- 
nated in  the  middle  of  April ;  three  or  four  feet  of  snow  covered 
the  ground  around  Quebec. 

To  procure  some  other  terms  of  comparison,  wo  present  ex- 
tracts fi'om  the  Jesuits'  journals  : — 

1645,  Nov.  15th.—"  The  snow  began  to  stay." 

1G46,  April. — "  From  tlie  17th  to  the  l8th  the  river  was  clear, 

and  they  began  to  sow  about  this  time." 

Nov.  7fch. — It  began  to  freeze,  so  as  to  form  ice,  and  the  next 

day  it  snowed  for  the  hrst  time." 

1647,  March  lltli. — "  Then  Ix^gan  the  break  up  of  a  winter 
without  winter,  for  it  had  not  been  cold  up  to  that  time." 

Nov.  4th. — "  The  snoAv  began." 

1648,  Nov.  18th.—"  The  snow  began  to  stay." 

1641). — Navigation  opened  between  Quebec  and  Tlii'ee  Elvers 
on  the  22d  of  April ;  the  ice  in  the  Ilivor  St.  Ohailes  broke  up 
on  the  27th,  and  on  the  28th  they  began  to  sow." 

1650,  A])ril  25th. — The  breaking  up  of  ice  took  place  in  the 
Biver  St.  Charles.  '  On  the  28d  of  November,  a  vessel  going  to 
carry  fish  to  Montreal  came  back  to  Quebec,  because  the  ice 
began  to  form  in  Lake  St.  Peter." 

Such  are  the  observations  we  have  been  able  to  gather  rela- 
tive to  the  climate  of  Quebec,  such  as  it  w-as  in  the  first  days  of 
the  colony ;  and  here  are  some  made  in  our  own  times,  after  a 
lapse  of  upwards  of  200  years  : — 

1855,  Nov.  18tli. — The  snow  fell  in  abundance.  25th.  Steam- 
boats, starting  for  Montreal,  were  obliged  by  the  ice  to  come 
back,  and  go  into  winter  quarters  at  Quebec. 

1856,  April. — Tlie  ice  of  Lake  St,  Peter  was  going  down  from 
the  23d  to  the  27th ;  20th,  the  snow  had  mostly  disappeared. 

1857,  April  20th. — The  middle  of  the  fields  was  uncovered. 
24th.  The  ice  in  the  Eiver  St.  Charles  broke  up.  28th.  The 
Lake  St.  Peter  ice  broke  up  and  passed  Quebec.  May  30th. 
Plum  and  apple-trees  are  in  bloom.  Octol)er  28th.  The  first 
snows  whiten  the  earth,  biit  soon  disappear.  Nov.  23d.  Good 
sleighing.  Dec.  3d.  Navigation  terminates  between  Montreal 
and  Quebec. 

*  The  Island  of  Orloans,  situated  a  few  miles  below  Quebec,  is  now  highly 
cultivated,  and  very  foitilo  ;  also  other  portions  of  the  country,  on  both  sides  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  Kiver  St.  Charles. 


CLIMATE  OP  CANADA. 


76 


)d. 

fhe 

th. 

Irst 

]od 


^S 


1858,  April  14tli  and  15tli. — Lake  St.  Peter  ice  passes  Que- 
bec. June  1st.  Apple-trees  and  plum-trees  in  bloom.  Nov. 
8th.  First  snow  fell ;  30th,  navigation  closes  between  Quebec 
and  Montreal. 

1859,  March  30th. — Summer  vehicles  are  used.  18th  April, 
Lake  St.  Peter  ice  broke  up,  and  navigation  resumed.  May 
IGth.  Plum  and  cherry-trees  in  blossom ;  October  21,  snow 
whitens  the  ground ;  29th,  navigation  stopped  between  Quebec 
and  Montreal. 

18G0,  April  17th. — Navigation  opened  in  the  River  St.  Law- 
rence ;  May  19th,  plum-trees  in  blossom  ;  Nov.  18th,  first  snow 
falls  ;  navigation  remained  open  until  the  7th  of  December. 

18G1. — The  Lake  St.  Peter  ice  lu'oke  up  on  the  25th  of  April, 
and  navigation  opened  on  the  St.  Lawrence  between  Quebec 
and  Montreal. 

Mean  Temperatures. 

Comparative  ^.'onthly  TiiLlos  of  Mnux  Tcmperatarc  of  Montreal  and  Quebec, 

from  recent  Observations. 

Montreal  Quebec. 

Months.  45'  30'  N.  L.    4G'  4'J'  N.  L. 

°  Falir.  °  Fabr. 


March, 

April  .... 

May,  .... 

29.40 
43.50 
58.00 

28.06 
36.14 
49.03 

Mean  Sirring  Temp., 

June, .... 
July, 

August, 

43.05 

68.30 
73.00 
70.70 

37.74 

60.34 
68.86 
62.50 

Mean  Summer  Temp., 

September, 
October, 
November, . 

70.G0 

60.G0 
46.40 
25.70 

65.56 

55.15 
45.43 
26.75 

Mean  Autumn  Temp.,    , 

December  . 
January,     . 
February,  . 

43.56 

19.00 
14.90 
17.80 

43.10 

18.00 
12.50 
10.55 

Mean  Winter  Temp., 
Yearly  Mean,  . 

17.30 
44.60 

13.68 
40.02 

'I  11 


70 


o 


IKPLUENCE  OP  CUltATE. 


I 
i 

1.1 


I 


'i;     . 


II  ;hi; 


!■     1' 


Altliougli  tho  oarly  obsoiTations  011  record  do  not  givo  tlio 
exiict  range  of  tlio  thermometer,  as  is  now  attainable,  yet  still 
it  seems  safe  to  infer  that  the  mean  annual  temperature  of 
Canada  has  not  materially  changed  during  tho  past  three  cen- 
turies. 

"On  comparing  the  meteoroloffical  observations  made  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuncs  with  those  of  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth,  it  is  easily  to  be  convinced  that  the  climate  of 
Canada — at  least  the  neighborhood  of  Quebec — is  about  tho 
same  now  as  it  was  300  ytsars  ago.  Then,  three  or  four  feet  /f 
snow  ;  now  at  least  as  much  ;  the  lirst  snow  falling  the  iirst 
fortnight  of  November,  tho  break  up  of  the  River  St.  Charles 
from  the  18th  to  tho  27th  April ;  navigation  on  the  St.  Lawrence, 
between  Quebec  and  Montreal,  interrupted  by  the  ice  in  the 
last  week  of  November,  and  opening  toward  tho  end  of  April — 
five  months,  closed  on  an  average.  The  apple,  cherry,  and 
])lum-trees  blossoming  the  last  of  May  and  beginning  of  June  ; 
this  is  what  we  find  at  both  epochs.  In  this  respect  nothing 
appears  changed;  and  the  ckavhu/s  made  untr  now  have  had 
very  little  influence  in  the  present  tomjierature  of  Canada. 

"  It  is,  then,  to  other  causes  besides  the  existence  of  forests, 
that  the  great  cold  of  the  winter  of  our  country  is  due.  They 
are  to  be  looked  for  in  the  drpiess  of  tho  northern  atmosphere  ; 
tho  neighborhood  of  Hudson  Bay,  which  is  covered  with  ice 
during  a  great  j^ortion  of  the  year ;  in  tho  frequency  of  tho 
northwest  winds,  which  carry  away  from  America  the  heated 
moisture  produced  by  tho  warm  current  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ; 
perhaps  in  the  proximity  of  the  Magnetic  Pole,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Captaiiilloss,  is  to  the  north  of  the  Contiiieut  of  America, 
in  about  tho  TJOth  degree  of  latitude,  while  the  greatest  cold  is 
felt  on  the  72^  and  73d  degree.  Indeed,  the  nearness  of  tho 
Poles  of  cold  and  terrestrial  magnetism  would  seem  to  show 
that  some  relation  exists  between  the  temperature  and  tho  mag- 
netism of  the  globe." 

Canada  as  It  Is,  in  a  Climatic  Point  of  View. 

HoGAN,  in  his  Prhe  Essay  on  Canada,  says  :  "  The  acknow- 
ledged influence  of  the  atmosphere,  not  only  upon  the  produc- 
tiveness of  the  soil  of  a  country,  but  upon  the  temper,  habits, 
and  industry  of  its  inhabitants,  renders  an  inquiry  into  iho 
climate  of  Canada  a  subject  of  great  importance. 

"  Her  Inland  Seas,  covering  an  area  of  about  100,000  square 
miles,  and  a  supposed  contents  of  11,000,000  cubic  miles  of 
water — far  exceeding  half  the  fresh  water  in  all  the  lakes  in  tho 


I 


CANADA— TEMTEHATURE,  TAIN,  ETC. 


77 


ests, 
:iiey 
ere ; 
ice 
the 
tod 
ICO ; 
rd- 
ica., 
d  is 
the 

lOW 


low- 
luc- 
)its, 
I  the 

I  are 
of 
Itho 


world — exercise  a  powerful  influence  in  modifying  the  two  ex- 
tremes of  licat  mid  cold.  The  uniformity  of  temperature  thus 
produ(!ed,  although  low,  ia  found  to  be  highly  favorable  to  ani- 
mal and  vegotal)le  lif(\  It  is  therefore  found,  that  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  lakes,  the  most  delicate  fruits  are  reared  with- 
out injury,  whilst  in  places  four  or  five  degi-ecs  furtlier  south, 
they  are  clestroyed  by  the  early  frosts.  The  quantity  of  rain, 
Avhich,  for  the  most  part,  falls  in  sunmier  and  early  autumn,  is, 
no  doubt,  greatly  increased  by  evaporation  from  these  immense 
bodies  of  Avater.  The  winds  are  most  variable,  and  rarely  con- 
tinue for  more  than  two  or  three  days  in  the  same  quarter. 
This  has  the  effect  of  preserving  the  equilibrium,  and  renders 
the  occurrence  of  disastrous  storms  less  frequent.  The  south- 
west, the  most  j)revalent  wind,  is  generally  moderate,  with  clear 
skies.  The  northeast  and  oast  bring  coutimied  rains  in  sum- 
mer and  early  autumn,  and  the  northwest,  springing  from  the 
region  of  ice,  is  invariably  dry,  elastic,  and  invigorating.  Since 
1818,  the  climate  has  greatly  changed,  owing  principally,  it  is 
supposed,  to  the  large  clearings  of  tbe  primeval  forests. 

"The  salubrity  of  the  province  is  sufficiently  shown  by  its 
cloudless  skies,  its  elastic  air,  and  almost  entire  absence  of  fogs. 
The  lightness  of  the  atmosphere  has  a  most  invigorating  effect 
upon  the  spirits.  The  winter  frosts  arc  severe  and  steady,  and 
the  summer  suns  are  hot,  and  bring  on  vegetation  with  wonder- 
ful rajiidity.  It  is  true  that  the  spring  of  Canada  differs  much 
from  the  spring  of  nip ny  parts  of  Europe  ;  but  after  her  long 
winter,  th^  crops  start  up  as  if  by  magic,  and  reconcile  her  in- 
habitants to  the  loss  of  that  which,  elsewhere,  is  often  the  sw^cet- 
est  season  of  the  year.  If,  however,  Canada  has  but  a  short 
spring,  she  can  boast  of  an  autumn  dcllciously  mild,  and  often 
Ungering  on,  with  its  "Indian  Summer"  and  golden  sunsets, 
until  the  month  of  December. 

"  A  Canadian  winter,  the  mention  of  which,  some  years  ago, 
in  Europe,  conveyed  almost  a  sensation  of  misery,  is  hailed 
rather  as  a  season  of  increased  enjoyment  than  of  privation  and 
discomfort  by  the  people.  Instead  of  alternate  rain,  snow,  sleet, 
and  fog,  Avith  broken  up  and  impassable  roads,  the  Canadian 
has  clear  skies,  a  fine  bracing  atmosjiliere,  Avith  the  rivers  and 
many  of  the  smaller  lakes  frozen,  and  the  inequalities  in  the 
rude  tracks  through  the  Avoods  made  smooth  by  snow,  the  Avhole 
face  of  the  country  being  literally  macadamized  by  nature  for  a 
people  as  yet  unable  to  macadamize  for  themselves. 

"  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  leng-th  of  this  season  is 
necessarily  prejudicial  to  the  farmer,  for  mild  winters  are  gen- 
erally found  to  be  injurious  to  fall  crops  of  wheat,  and  a  serious 
hindrance  to  business  and  travelling.    The  summer,  short  and 


Bnagn 


.  ii:  1. 

::  ii:; 

li 

1: 

r 

t    i ' 

1  '  ■■  "I 
1    : 

78 


INFLUENCE  OF  CIJMATE. 


eminently  fmctifying,  oo(  ..pies  tlio  wholo  of  tlio  farmGr'f3  time. 
It  is  in  viator  that  tlio  j^nd  is  cloarcHl  ot"  timLor,  tluj  firewood 
draf^^cil  Jiomo  from  tl^^rwoodM  on  sloi^lis,  over  ground  impas- 
sable for  wliool  carriag(^s,  and  that  tlio  farmer  disposes  of  his 
produ(!e,  and Liys in  his  snp))lies  for  tlio  futuio.  The  snow  forms 
a  coverinf^  for^his  cr()j)s,  anil  a  road  to  his  market.  On  the 
arrival  of  winter,  the  earo  of  his  fat  stock  C(!ases,  for  tho  wholo 
is  killed,  freezes,  and  can  bo  disposed  of  as  the  state  of  tho 
niarkcit  sujfgests. 

*'  Comparin<f  the  two  Provhices,  it  is  admitted  that  tho  climate 
of  Upper  Canada  is  the  most  favorMblo  .^'')r  ;iffricultural  })ur- 
posos,  the  winter  being  shorter  and  the  temperatnnj  less  severe  ; 
but  tho  brilliant  sky,  the  ])ure  elastic  ?iir  and  uninterrnj)ted 
frost  of  Lower  C*anadii,,  though  ])('rha])s  lingering  too  long,  ai'o 
far  mon^  exhilarating,  and  render  out-door  exercise  inu(Oi  more 
agreoiiblo.  Few  who  have  enjoyed  the  moj-ry  winter  of  (^uebee 
and  Montreal,  Avith  tho  nol)l(}  hos])itidity  and  (^harming  society 
of  these  (dtic^s,  their  sleigh-rides  and  then-  pic-ni(ts,  can  ever  for- 
got the  many  attractions  of  a  Avinter  in  Lower  Canada." 

Of  the  geiuu'al  salubrity  of  tho  Province,  its  vital  statistics, 
as  coni])arvi(l  Avith  those  of  other  countri(>s,  alTord  satisfactory 
evidence;  and  the  folloAvijig  tal)le,  communicated  by  Professor 
(luy,  is  not  doA'oid  of  interest,  as  shoAving  the  proportion  of 
deaths  to  tho  population  in  various  ccnintries  : — 


Austria, . 

1  in  40 

Prussia, 

1  in  ;u) 

IJelgium, 

1  "  4^ 

llussia  in  Europe, . 

1  "  44 

Dentnark, 

1  "  45 

S])Min,     . 

1  "  40 

England, 

1  "  4(1 

Switzerland,  . 

1  "  40 

Prance, 

1  "  42 

Tuikcn',  . 

1  "  no 

Norwa}^  and  SAveden, 

1  "  41 

Tlnitul  States, 

1  "  74 

Portugal, 

• 

• 

1  "  40 

Canada, . 

1  "  U8 

Climate  of  Canacla,  New  BninsTwick,  and  Nova  Scotia. 

"  Tho  ch'matc  of  Western  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia  is  vamK^r 
than  that  of  Canada  East,  Prince  Edward  Islrnvi,  r  Noav  1  >runs- 
Avi'-k,  idthough  a  larger  portion  of  tho  hitter  is  similar  to  that  uf 
Nova  Scotia.  Li  NeA\foundland  Avinter  is  severe  ;  yet  snoAV 
does  not  lie  hnig  on  the  southern  (toast.  It  is  generally  said 
that  AvintiM'  in  these  co1oni(!S,  lasts  fiv(^  incmths,  Avhich  in  one 
sense  is  tnie,  but  in  another  it  is  not.  Winter,  in  reidity,  can- 
not bo  said  to  L'lst  longev  than  three  months,  commencing  al)out 
the  middle  of  December,  and  ending  about  Ihe  middle  of 
March.     During  this  period  the.  o  are,  in  the  coldest  section  of 


^m 


CLIMATE  OF  CANADA,  NEW  BHUN8WICK,  ETC. 


70 


40 
40 

74 

'.KS 


IHK- 
uf 
liow 
laid 
pno 
liin- 
but 


Lower  Canad.-i,  from  twtmty  to  twouty-fivG  cold  days,  wliou  tlio 
tliorinomctor  ranges  from  l5^'  to  20  '  dof^rcci-i  below  ■M)i'o.  The 
(!old  is  driven  from  tlio  Arctic;  rt^^ioiis  Ly  nortliwe.^t  winds,  pass- 
ing over  i]u)  country  in  waves,  lasting  for  about  tlireci  days  at 
a  tiuK! — familiarly  known  as  '  <!()ld  sna])s.'  During  the  inter- 
vals bolween  these  periods  of  cold  tlui  tliermometcn-  ranges 
ubout  zero. 

"  There  are  generally  from  four  to  seven  snow  storms  during 
ea(di  wjiiter,  when  the  snow  falls,  in  Canada  West,  to  the  dejitli 
of  a,l)out  one  and  a,  half  fe(!t  in  the  aggregate;  in  "Nova  Scotia., 
from  one  to  two  feet;  in  New  Jirunswick,  (^mada  East,  and 
Prince  Edward  Island,  from  two  to  four  fe«!t.  To  these  gene- 
ral rules,  howiiver,  there  arc-  freciueiit  exc(>pti(ms.  Souh^  sea- 
sons the  snow  exceeds  these  depths,  and  vi  ly  fretjuently,  in 
Nova  Scotia  and  a  large  ])art  of  N(;w  Brunswick,  the  sjk^w  does 
not  average  one  foot  in  depth.  'J'Ik^  January  thaw  oi't(>n  sweeps 
the  snow  from  the  la.ce  of  the;  country,  heaving  the  ground,  con- 
trary to  tin;  iiil(U-ests  of  agiiceltun!,  uucov(!red  for  wcMiks.  In 
Western  Canada,  where  a  Lirg(!  (piantity  of  winter  wheat  is 
rais(Ml,  thesi;  thaws  an;  ])iirticula.rly  iiijuvi(Mis.  During  a  largo 
])()rtion  of  winter,  in  the  cold  parts  of  tiie  colonies,  the  ther- 
mometer i-anges  from  10  '  to  40'  above  zero. 

"  Dee])  snow  adds  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Tho  gi'ound  is 
so  ]mlveri/(Ml  by  th(!  action  of  tlie  frost  as  U.  i^e  rendered  friai)le 
and  more  (iasily  ])lougli(Ml.  In  IjowiU'  Cana<la  tlu^  snow  M])p(!ars 
early  in  Deceml)er,  and  disa])pears  Jirialiy  about  the  miilille  of 
April  ;  i)i  Western  (!i'^'-><^:i,  it  disa])]H'avs  three;  weeks  sooner. 

"  J^y  a  wis(>  and  ecoijomical  division  of  time,  all  cli.sses  of  the 
jieople  may  be,  and  generally  ar(>,  as  inotit.ibly  em{)loyed  dur- 
vrig  tlu!  winter  lucmths,  as  in  summer.  It  is  a  great  mistake,  to 
say  that  wint(;r  is  necressarily  a  ])eri()d  of  idlenc  ss  and  inatttivity  ; 
the  reverse  is  the  fact.  Our  wintcu's  an;  phiasant,  and  th"ir  long 
evenings  afford  the  student  ampl(5  time  for  I  lie  a('(|uisitlou  of 
us(4"ul  kno\^'lcdge.  Tl.  re  is  r.o  S(\'iS()U  of  the  year  so  well 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  lit(U'ary,  domestic  aud  social  inter- 
course, as  that  of  a  N(n-th  American  wii.'ter.  It  is  the  lecturing 
season  in  tiu!  institutions  and  halls,  with  wldcli  nearly  (^very 
community  is  su])])lied  ;  it  is  the  season  when  tjje  sevcual  ci)lo- 
nial  h^gishitures  sit,  and  the  s<^ason  when  the  ])r('ss  is  doubly 
vigilant  in  sup|)lying  tin;  ])ublic,  with  useful  information.  In- 
deed th(;  winter  season  in  tlu'S(\  colonies  is  wry  pleasant,  ail'ord- 
ing  <Mijoyment  a.nd  profit  to  th(>  iidiabitants. 

"  The  prevailing  winter  winds  are  th<i  northwest,  north,  and 
nortlu^ast ;  in  spring,  south;  and  in  the  summer,  west  and 
south W(!st.  In  tiie  interi<n-  of  Cana(hi  East  aud  New  iJi'uns- 
wick,  tho  heat  of  sumn-  jr  sometimes  rises  to  HU'^  and  even  W ; 


i     ,'  v 
1      ■  1 


v,5  ' 


I    1 


i  m 


BT- 


n<p>nn>WBP 


r?   M 


¥'■        'II      i 


80 


raPLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


wliile  along  tlio  sea-board  the  climate  is  more  equable,  and  the 
air  wholesome  and  bracing.  Vegetation  progresses  "with  great 
rapidity.* 

"The  autumn  is  the  most  delightful  season  in  the  year.  In 
the  language  of  J.  V.  Ellis  :  '  The  summer  still  lingers,  as  if  re- 
gretting to  quit  the  scenes  of  beauty  it  has  created ' — and  then 
is  produced  the  'Indian  Summer,'  a  season  of  rare  and  ex- 
quisite loveliness,  that  unites  the  v.'armth  of  summer  wdth  the 
mellowness  of  autunni. 

"  The  fogs  which  sometimes  prevail  along  a  part  of  the  At- 
lantic coast  line,  seldom  extend  more  than  live  miles  inland. 
The  Gulf  and  Eiver  St.  Lava'cnce  are  more  free  from  fogs  than 
the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  the  Atlantic  coasts ;  but  in  none  of  these 
places  are  they  found  to  impede  navigation,  or  produce  efiects 
detrimental  to  the  general  interests  of  the  country. 

*'  Thei'e  are  no  endcndcal,  and  few  epidemical  diseases  in  tlie 
habitable  part  of  British  North  America.  The  country  is  re- 
mi.rkably  healthy,  as  the  longcA'ity  of  human  life  testifies.  The 
frosts  are  less  severe  than  in  many  of  the  populous  countries  of 
Christendom,  and  the  siimmers  are  less  calid  than  m  many  of 
the  southern  climes  where  civilization  is  making  rapid  progress. 
Indeed,  the  climate  of  one-third,  at  least,  of  British  North 
America  is  highly  adapted  to  the  progTess  of  ci>  ilization." 

ludian  Summer  iu  Canada. 
Indian  Summer  is  a  phenomenon  of  constant  yearly  occur- 
rence and  marked  characteristics  in  th  northewest  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  The  following  table,  furnished  from  the 
private  memoranda  of  an  assistant  at  the  Pro.incial  Observa- 
tory, at  Toronto,  establishes  the  fact,  that  hazy,  warm,  mellow 
weather,  termed  Indian  summer,  is  a  periodical  phenomenon  in 
Canada.  The  characters  of  Indian  Summer  are  still  more  de- 
cided in  the  far  Northwest  than  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake 
Ontario.  Sounds  are  distinctly  aiidible  at  great  distances; 
objects  are  difficult  to  discern  unless  close  at  hand ;  the  weather 
is  warm  and  oppressive,  the  atmosphere  hazy  and  calm,  and 
every  object  appears  to  wear  a  tranquil  and  drowsy  aspect. 

*  "  By  a  rofer-'nco  to  t\m  mean  tcinporaturo  of  t'  o  years  in  Montroal.  from  1826 
to  1852,"  says  Dr.  A.  Hall,  "tlio  fact  will  1)e  apparent,  tliat  a  gradual  decrease  of 
temperature  has  marked  the  years,  as  they  have  successively  passed  away ;  a 
circumstance  not  very  consonant  ^vith  the  almost  universally  received  opinion, 
that  countries  become  gradually  warmer  in  the  ratio  of  their  cultivation,  popu- 
lation, &c.  The  year  18:50  was  the  warmest  on  nicord  (478"  Fahr.),  and  the  year 
1835  (42''  Fahr)  was  the  coldest ;  the  year  18D3  (44.0°)  being  the  mean  tempera- 
turo  for  a  period  of  twenty-seven  yours." 


r'^fff'^W'P^?^ 


i-^MiJUlVMIULII^M'! 


CLIMATIC  OBSERVATIONa. 


81 


Indian  Summer  at  Torouto,  C.  W. 

Tear. 

Commencement. 

Termination. 

No.  of  Days 

1845, 

24th  October, 

29th  October, . 

.    6 

1846, 

4th  November, 

7th  November, 

.     4 

1847, 

2Sth  October, 

81st  October,  . 

.    4 

1848, 

20tli  November, 

28(1  November, 

.    4 

1849, 

18th 

18th 

.    6 

1850, 

7th 

18th 

.    7 

1851, 

0th  October, 

11th  October, . 

.    0 

1852, 

10th  November, 

21st  November, 

.     0 

1853, 

12th  October, 

20th  October, . 

.    9 

1854. 

24th 

28th 

.    5 

1855, 

10th 

2eth 

.  11 

1850, 

19th 

22d 

.    4 

1857, 

5th 

12th 

.     8 

1858, 

18th 

28th 

.  11 

1859, 

2d  November, 

8th  November, 

.    7 

n  result. 

27tli  October, 

2d  November, 

G.\  days. 

l-^^i 


:r 
Id 


Climatic  Observations  near  Montreal. 
The  extreme  nature  of  the  Climate  will  bo  sufficiently  ex- 
hibited by  the  accurate  observations  of  the  weatlxer  of  1854; 
made  near  Montreal  by  Dr.  Smallwood. 


Months. 

Mean  Tom-       V 

iiin  in 

Snow  in 

Range  of 

pcraturc.          Indies. 

lucllPfl. 

Tliermonicter. 

°  Falir. 

"  Falir. 

January,     . 

10.92           1.007 

17.98 

78.8 

Febraary,   . 

12.20           0.150 

23.90 

71.7 

March, 

20.84           0.910 

28.10 

00.4 

Apiil, . 

87.75           7.880 

4.03 

52.2 

May,  . 

57.17           3.418 

00.7 

June,  . 

63.80           8.384 

40.0 

July,  . 

70.20          0.174 

48.5 

August, 

08.81           2.205 

48.2 

September, 

58.01           0.107 

04.2 

October, .   . 

48.40           4.844 

3.10 

55.5 

November, . 

32.99           5.130 

1.10 

50.0 

December, . 

27.35           0.110 

18.07 

78.1 

Total,      . 

40.505 

97.00 

Spring,     . 

.     38°Fahr. 

Autumn, 

t 

.    4r°Fahr. 

Summer, . 

.    70°      " 

Winter, 

. 

.    17°      " 

Yearly  Mean,  44 
0 

°  Fahrenheit. 

■J 

;l 

b 


i^W 


Mi 


)i 


.  lii 


if  ill   I 


n.% 


n.  \ 


1!  'f  '  r. 


82 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


"  The  IsL.\ND  OF  Montreal  has  been  called  *  the  Garden  of 
Canada.'  The  soil,  liov/ever,  can  only  be  regarded  as  of  sec- 
ondary quality.  The  Trenton  limestone  prevails  over  the  whole 
island,  as  an  isolated  patch  among  the  surrounding  primary 
rocks,  rendering  the  soil  genial  to  the  growth  of  grasses,  though 
not  of  winter  wheat.  Oats,  barley,  and  potatoes  are  the  staple 
croi:)s,  with  small  quantities  of  turnips.  Good  orchards,  pro- 
ducing dififorcut  kinds  of  fruit,  are  met  with  throughout  the 
Island  of  Montreal,  Avhero  the  soil  rests  upon  the  limestone, 
and  is  more  friable.  The  apple,  however,  does  not  thrive  on  the 
clay  soils  of  the  flats  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  in  consequence  of 
their  tenacious  nature." — liusscWs  Agriculture  and  Clhnale. 

Monthly  Jlean  Temperature  at  Qukbec  ;  North  latitude,  4C°  49' ;  West  longi- 
tude, 71°  IG',  from  Greenwich. 
Months.  Mean  Temix    Maximum.        Minimum.  Variation. 


"l^ahr. 

°  Jb'ahr. 

"Fahr. 

"Fah 

January, 

1G.70 

46.0 

-14.0 

60.0 

February,  . 

14.55 

30.8 

29.5 

66.3 

March, 

21.06 

47.3 

2.4 

44.9 

April, . 

34.14 

59.8 

5.9 

53.9 

May,  . 

40.03 

83.0 

32.0 

51.0 

June,  . 

58.34 

88.0 

43.2 

44.8 

July,   . 

68.86 

90.3 

51.9 

38.4 

August, 

61.54 

85.0 

38.3 

46.7 

Sei^tember, 

65.15 

81.3 

34.7 

46.6 

October, 

45.43 

60.4 

28.4 

32.0 

November, . 

28.75 

34.3 

10.0 

24.3 

December,  . 

20.09 

40.1 

—19.2 

59.3 

Extreme  range  of  Temperature,  119^  Fahrenheit. 
Mean  Annual  Temperature,  40.64^  Fahr. 

Health  Statistics  of  the  Principal  Cities  in  Canada.    From  the 

Official  Census. 


Cities. 

Pop.  18G1. 

Deaths,    i 

Pop.  1851. 

Deaths. 

Montreal,  C.  E.,    . 

90,323 

2,038  \ 

57,715 

1,725 

Q^icbec,        " 

51,109 

1,111 

42,052 

1,064 

Three  Pavers,  C.  E.       . 

6,058 

100 

4,936 

Ottawa,  C.  W.,      . 

14,669 

172  i 

7,760 

90 

Kingston,    " 

13,743 

129  ' 

11,585 

172 

Toronto,      " 

44,821 

727 

30,775 

474 

Hamilton,  " 

19,096 

217 

14,112 

185 

London,      " 

11,555 

102  1 

7,035 

100 

HEALTH  STATISTICS — MEAN  TEMTERAITRES.  88 

Total  Population  and  Deaths  in  Canada, — 1861. 


Population. 

Deaths. 

Ratio  of 
Deaths. 

Lower  Canada, 
Uj)per  Canada, 

1,111,566 
1,396,091 

13,224 
10,160 

lin    84 
1  in  137 

Grand  Total, 

2,507,657 

23,384 

1  in  107 

From  tlie  above  Table  of  Deaths,  &c.,  it  seems  that  Montreal 
and  Quebec,  situated  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  are  quite  un- 
healthy, compared  to  Hamilton  and  Toronto,  situated  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Ontario.  The  same  disparagement  is  apparent 
between  the  Upper  and  Lower  Province. 

Mean  Temperatures. 

Comparative  Tables  of  Temperature  of  St.  John,  i<".  R  ;  Halifax,  N.  S.  ;  and 

Cir^VBLOTTETOWN,  P.  E.  Is. 

St.  John.  Halifax.      Cliarlottetown. 

Months  and  Seasons.  45°  IG'  N.  L.      44°  a'J'  N.  L.    40°  15'  N.  I.. 


March, 
April  . 
May,  . 

°  Fahr. 
.     29.61 
.     38.97 
,    60.11 

°  Fahr. 

28.50 
37.80 
50.40 

"  Fahr 

29.00 
36.00 
51.25 

Spring, 

June, . 
July,  . 
August, 

.    39.56 

.    58.04 
.     64.87 
.    64.02 

38.90 

57.20 
67.10 
61.60 

38.75 

59.50 
62.25 
66.00 

Summer, 

September, 
October,     . 
November, . 

.    62.31 

57.70 

.    48.55 

36.80 

61.63 

55.70 
50.40 

42.80 

62.58 

56.00 
39.25 
29.50 

Autumn, 

December  . 
January,     . 
February,  . 

47.68 

.    23.15 
.    19.06 
.    21.13 

49.30 

32.10 
22.00 
20.30 

41.58 

17.00 
14.50 
17.30 

"Winter, 
Yearly  Mean, . 

21.11 

.    42.66 

24.80 
43.50 

16.26 
40.00 

il 


ii!;: 


.:.  I :  I 


!;■    I 


::ii 


:;■   \] 


in 
I'.i 

I 

ill 


\    I 


Uf 


84 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 
Agricultural  Produce  of  Canada, — 1861. 


Arrps  of  Whent. 

1,380,300 
244,709 

Uash.  ofWlienl. 

24,020,425 
2,054,354 

Acres  Iniliau 
t'oriK 

Irtish.  Indian 

(Juni. 

Upper  Canada,     . 
Lower  Canada,     . 

79,918 
15,012 

2,250,290 
334,vS01 

Total, 

1,031,135 

.\cTes  of  Oiits. 



G78,337 
955,553 

27,274,879 

Bush,  of  Oats. 

21,220,874 
17,551,290 

94,930 

2,591,151 

Upper  Canada,     , 
Lower  Canada,     . 

Acres  of  Borlcy. 

118,940 
139,442 

.\Jiish,  ISarloy. 

2,821,902 

2,281,074 

Total, 

1,033,890 

38,772,170 

258,382 

Acres  of  I'oivi. 

400,595 
231,035 

5,103,G3(> 

Upper  Canada,     . 
Lower  Canada,     .. 

Acres  of  Rye. 

70,376 
83,931 

Bush,  of  Kj:e. 

973,181 

844,192 

B)13h.  of  I'iMS. 

9,601,390 

2,048,777 

Total, 

154,307 

1,817,373 

094,030 

12,250,173 

AcrosUiickwheal 

Bnidi.Biiekwhcat 

1.248,037 
1,250,025 

AcTu.s  Potatoes.. 

137,200 

118,709 

liubh.  Potatoes. 

Upper  Canada,     . 
Lower  Canada,     . 

74,565 
75,005 

15,325,920 
12,770,471 

Total, 

150,170 

Tons  r)f  liny. 

2,498,002 

Lbs-Staple  Sngar 

0,970,005. 
9,325,147 

255,075 

IJ)S.  Wool 

3,059,766 

1,907,388 

28,090,391 

Lb.s.IScmp&riaa 

Upper  Gmada,     . 
Lower  Canada,     . 

801,844 

089,977 

1,225,934 

975,827 

Total, 

1,551,821 

10,295,752 

I.b:!.  ChpcBO. 

5,027,154 

No.  Lit  (y'OIVB. 

2,201,701 

Lbs.  linttcr. 
20,828,204 

15,900,949 

Mo.  of  Sliepp. 

Upper  Canada,     . 
Lower  Canada,     . 

2,687,172 
080,279 

451,640 
328,370 

1,170,225 

082,829 

Total, 

42,735,213 

3,373,409 

980,010 

1,853,054 

From  ilu!  abovis  Tublo  it  appears  that  tlio  great  agricultural  products  of  Canada 
nro  wheat  and  oata  ;  showinjf  conclusively  that  tlic  climate  of  (/anada  is  well 
adapted  to  the  hardier  cereals. 


METEOROLOGICAL  RESTLTS. 


85 


ian 


(Ji 

51 


32 


Mean  Meteorological  Results  at  Toronto. 

Latilvde,  ■43°  S9'  North;  Lonfjitiuh;  TO"  21'  West. 
BY   G.    T.    KINGSTON,    M.A. 

DIRECTOR  OF  THE  PBOVIXCUL  StAHNF.TU;   OIISFJIVATOEY,   TORONTO. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  year  ISG-l  was  44°. 70,  or  O^.SS  in 
excess  of  the  average  of  twenly-tivo  years.  The  deTiation  of  the 
monthly  means  above  or  below  their  respective  averages,  and  irre- 
spective of  sig-n,  had  an  average  amplitude  of  l^.SG;  thus  indicating 
a  3'ear  of  unusually  equable  temperature,  the  average  amplitude  in 
twenty-five  years  being  2^.83, 

The  mean  deviations  of  temperature  in  the  four  seasons,  with  their 
proper  signs,  were:  — 0°.38  in  Winter;  +0"//9  in  Spring;  +2".27  in 
Summer;     'id  —  0°.60  in  Autumn. 

As  reg:i  ds  rain  and  snow,  there  was,  on  the  whole  year,  an  excess 
•amounting  to  0.655  inches  of  water.  An  excess  occurred  in  Winter, 
Spring,  and  Autumn — the  total  precipitation  exceeding  the  average 
by  1.13G  inches  in  Winter,  1.788  inches  in  Sj)ring,  and  0.186  inches 
in  Autumn.  In  Summer,  the  rain  Avas  deficient  as  compared  with 
the  average  by  2.405  inches.  This  deficiency  was  not  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  summer  of  1863;  but  the  distribution  among  the 
three  summer  mouths  was  very  different  in  the  two  years,  for  while 
in  the  summer  of  1863  there  was  a  moderate  deficiency  in  each 
month,  the  rain  in  June,  1864,  was  less  than  one-fifth,  and  in  July 
little  over  one-third  of  the  average  fall;  that  of  August  being  above 
the  average  in  the  ratio  of  5  to  3  nearly. 

In  the  following  summary  several  of  the  results  for  the  year  1864 
are  compared  with  the  averages  derived  fi'oni  a  series  of  years  as  well 
as  with  extreme  values  of  analogous  results  given  by  the  same  series. 

TEMPERATURE, 


Mean  temperature  of  the  year. . . 

Warmest  mo.nth 

Mean  temp,  of  the  Avann'st  month 

Coldest  month 

Mean  temp,  of  the  coldest  month. 
LMfl".  between  the  temp,  of  the } 
Avarm'st  and  the  cold'st  m'ths  \" 

Warmest  day 

Mean  temp,  of  the  warmest  day. 

('oldest  diiy 

Mean  temp,  of  tlie  coldest  day. . . 
Date  of  the  highest  temperature 

Iliil'hest  temperature. . , 

Date  of  lowoHt  temperature 

Lowest  temperature.. 

Range  of  the  year 


1864. 


44.  TO 
Julr. 
(i!).fa 
January. 
!>2.79 

4G.94 

June  2.J. 
81.77 

Feb.  17. 

—4.02 
Aug.  8. 
!>4.0 
Feb.  17. 
—15.0 
109.0 


Average  of 
2.")  vearB. 


Kxtremes. 


I  4417 
Julv. 
60.93 

Februixry. 
23.99 

43  99 


77.45 
•-1.03 

"mss" 
—12.4" " 

103.0 


i 


4(i.8Gin'46, 
Julv,  1854  I 

72.47      i 
Jan.  1857.  I 

13.75       i 


42.16  in  '56. 
Aug.  1860. 

6440 
Feb.  184a 

2660 


j  Julv  13. '45. 
!      82.:12 
Feb.  6. '55) 
Jan.23,'57) 
—14.38 
Aug.  24,  '54, 

99.2 

Jan.  26,  ^59. :  Jan.  3,  '42. 
—26.5         I     +1.0 
118.3  87.0 


Julv  31, '44 

73.75 

Dec.  33, 43. 

-i  9.57 

Aug.  19, '40. 

83.4 


I 


mv 


n 


i'lL 


I  |v 


I' 

M 
ni 


1 


86 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Oeneral  Meteorological 

I'ROVINCIAL  MAGNETICAL  OBSER 


Mean  tomporaturo 

Pifferenco  from  iiv.  (S.*)  years). 
Thermic  anomaly  (L.  43"  40 ). 

Highest  temiieratnre 

Lowest  temi)erature 

Monthly  and  annual  ranges. . 

Mean  maximum  temperature. 
Mean  minimum  temi)eraturc. 

Mean  daily  range 

Greatest  daily  rango 

Mean  height  of  barometer 

DiflFerence  from  av.  (18  years). 

Highest  barometer, 

Lowest  barometer 

Monthly  and  annual  ranges. . 

Mean  humidity  of  the  air 

Mean  elasticity  of  aqueous  vapor. 

Mean  of  cloudiness 

Difference  from  a  v.  (13  years). 

Resultant  direction  of  the  wind . 

"         velocity  of  the  wind . . 

Mean  velocity  (miles  per  hour) . . 

Diifeiencc  from  av.  (17  years) 

Total  amount  of  rain , 

Ditfor.  from  av.  (24  &  35  yrs.) 
Number  of  days  rain 

Total  amount  of  snow 

Difference  from  av.  (33  years.) 
Number  of  days  snow 

Number  of  fair  days 

Number  of  auroras  observed. . . . 

Possible  to  see  auro.  (No.  nights). 

Number  of  thunderstorms 


Jan. 


23.79 
-  0.82 
-10.01 


44,3 

-  0.0 

53.3 


29M 
17.51 
12.07 
26.9 

39.5887 
-.0447 


Fen. 


34.J13 

-  i.;?;5 

-10.88 

45.0 

-15.0 

00.0 

31.52 
18i)4 
12.58 
37,4 


20.4914 

—.1308 


30.103 

28  910 

119^ 


.83 


-110 


.67 
—.05 


s  78  w 

6.00 

10.33 


1.165 
■-0,106 


30,134 

29.009 

1.115 


.119 


.01 


s84w 

6.48 

10.11 

+  1.77 


26.3 
+11.15 
14 


0.397 

-0.603 
o 


14 


11 


9.5 
8.55 
14 


13 


11 


0 


Mab. 


39.12 
-  0.74 
-10.98 

50.3 
3.0 


35.59 
23,44 
13.16 

28.4 


Arn. 


40.95 

-  0.01 

-  9.35 


59.4 
28.1 
31.3 


47.48 
34.61 
13.87 
24.4 


May 


54.81 
-f-  3.13 
-  3.39 


79.0 
33.3 
46.8 


63.86 
46.30 
16.67 
26.3 


29.5082  29.5908  29.4721 
—.0741  +.0098  —.1125 


30.067 

38.829 
1.338 


.80 


.135 


.60 
+.06 


N  53  w 

2  29 

8.41 

0,26 

1.630 
+0.06^' 
9 


3.7 
5.40 
13 


29.964 

29.301 

0.663 


.194 


.74 

+.15 


n41  E 
3.39 

7.77 
—0.29 


29.788 

29.166 

0.633 


.75 


•■cud 


.68 

+.15 


N  7  W 

1.86 

5.64 

—0.95 


3.633     4.070 
+1.200  +0.864 
16  18 


14 


3.5 
1.10 
3 


14 


10 


0.0 
0.00 
0 


JtTNK. 


6;5.03 
+  1.60 
—  1.57 


93.4 
34.8 

58.6 


73.06 

53.87 
30.19 
31.7 


39.6545 
+.0931 


39.961 

39.007 

0.954 

.63 


.380 
.30 


N  55  w 
1.73 
4.53 

—0.74 


0.570 

-2.297 
5 


13 


12 


35 


24 


I>OTE, — Tho  ToitONTO  Maonf.ticai.  and  MKTF.onoiooiOAL  Or'EitVATOT.Y  issitiintcd  III  tlie  RroniKis 
of  the  University  of  Toronto,  in  liititndft  4ir  3'J'  X.;  longituilu  !>h.  I'm.  iiiis.  Vi'.  ;  103  feet  above 
Lalco  Ontario,  and  approxini.ntcly  iU2  feet  above  tbe  Icvol  of  the  sea, 

Tlio  duties  of  Die  Observatory  are  carried  on  by  tlie  Director,  G.  T.  Kinubion,  M.A.,  assisted  \>y 
several  competent  assistunts. 


METEOROLOGICAL  KESULTS. 


87 


cal 

iEK 

R. 


i03 

09 

57 


Register  for  the  year  1864. 

VATOKY,    TORONTO,    CANAD.V    WEST. 


<7 
9 


July. 

Aco, 

Skit. 

Oct. 

o 

45.11 

—  0.48 

—  8.63 

Nov. 

Deo. 

Yonr 

Yonr 
1804. 

Year 
1S03. 

44.57 
+  0.40 
—  6.43 

88.0 

—19.8 

107.8 

Year 
1802. 

69.73 
+  2.75 
+  1.03 

08.58 
+  2.37 
+  0.08 

94.0 
47.0 
47.0 

56.36 

—  1.48 

—  5.14 

86.91 
+  0.16 
—  0.29 

24.06 
—  1.50 
—11.34 

50.4 

—10.4 

00.8 

32.23 
19.71 
13.52' 
31.4 

44.92 
+  1.75 
—  6.08 

44.70 
-1-  0.53 
—  0.30 

94.0 

—15.0 

109.0 

44.35 

+  0.18 
—  0.65 

90.2 
49.0 
41.3 

73.0 
37.8 
35.2 

63.94 
48.96 
14.98 
37.0 

29.6097 
—.0532 

07.0 
28.0 
39.0 

53.05 
39.73 
13.32 
26.0 

29,5207 
—.1293 

29.890 

29.026 

0.864 

60.2 
21.0 
39.3 

90.5 

—10.0 

100.5 

15.43 
36.9 

95.5 

—  5.3 

100.7 

79.95 
69.79 
20.  IG 
31.3 

77.24 
61.41 
15.83 
29.2 

'  42.85 
31.31 
11.53 
24.3 

14.57 
37.4 

14".73 
39.6 

14.43 
37.0 

29.0289 
+.0275 

29.5450 
— .07G3 

29.5790 
—.0349 

30.126 

28.671 

1.455 

29.5198, 

— .1282| 

29.6330 
—.0197 

29.5590 
—.0537 

29.6536 
+.0403 

30.502 

28.704 

1.798 

0.77 

.266 

0.61 
+.01 

29.6243 
+.0115 

29.831 

29.319 

0.512 

29.803 

29.099 

0.764 

29.975 

29.230 

0.745 

30.,327 

28.854' 
1.473 

30.354 

28.707 
1.647 

30.327 

28.671 

1.656 

30.409 

28.805 

1.GC4 

.66 

.73 

.75 

.80 

.78 

.83 

0.75 

0.76 

0.77 

.473 

.516 

.347 

.248 

.74 
+.11 

.182 

.75 
+.01 

.121 

.259 

.263 

.202 

.44 
—.04 

.70 

+.23 

.58 
+.08 

.80 
+.05 

.61 
+.01 

N  66  w 
1.98 
6.78 

-0.10 

0.65 
-i-.05 

0.63 

+.03 

kOI-w 
2.23 
6.00 

+1.03 

n70w 
1.38 
4.75 

—0.43 

N38-W 
1.89 
7.00 

-f-1.52 

n60w 
3.17 
6.66 

+0.52 

s72w 
3.82 
7.64 

+0.17 

s83w 
4.94  i 
9.98 

+1.66 

n76av 
2.49 
7.40 

+0.54 

n41w 
1.34 
7.13 

+0.27 

26.483 

-3.472 

130 

n48w 
2.03 

7.33 

+0.47 

1.332 

4-2.142 

8 

5.060 

+2.034 

16 

•  •  •  • 

2.508 

—1.222 

11 

3.>il 

+0.791 
oo 

3.765 

+0.617 
11 

2.045 

+0.404; 

9 

20.599 

—3.344 

111 

29.486 

-0.409 

132 

25.529 

—4.426 

118 

•  •  •  • 



Inap. 

—  0.78 
1 

4.5 

+  1.38 

8 

27.1 

+12.41 
18 

03.3 
—  0.00 

08 

201 

74.0 
+11.24 
70 

180 

34 
158 

20 

62.9 
—  0.46 

74 

181 

85.4 

+33.04 
73 

23 

15 
6 

19 
4 

9 

0 

12 

9 
0 

1 

10 
0 

189 

3 

1 
9 

55 

44 

48 

19 

13 

14 

11 

201 

183 

176 

4 

5 

4 

0 

0 

17 

24 

24 

B 


Thn  instriimpnts  used  in  the  (>!)sorv.itory  ami  tho  system  of  obscrTation  nro  of  tlifi  most  approved 
description,  sliowiiJK  roliablo  ri'siiUs.  At  tlie  rcjriilar  observation  lionrs  a  record  is  made  of  tlie  gen- 
eral appuaranci!  i.f  tin'  sky,  'ndiuiin;;  the  form,  distribntion,  ami  motion  of  the  cloiide. 

Tin,"  .■ingiietieal  and  metc"  iolof,'icid  rusnlts  are  pnbllslnd  at  intervals  of  a  few  years,  forming  valu- 
able acqmsitions  to  kuowledije  of  the  most  useful  und  reliable  character. 


88 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Climate  of  Vancotiver'a  Island,  B.  A. 


I  1 


"  Tlio  olimatc  of  this  important  Island,  lyinpj  on  tlio  Pacific 
coast,  bctwocu  48 '  and  51 ''  nortli  latitude?,  i.s  rendered  })rovcr- 
l)ialiy  gonial,  productive,  and  salubrious,  from  an  interesting 
variety  of  causes.  The  temperature  of  tlie  Pacific  coast  gene- 
rally is  known  to  be  much  milder  than  that  which  obtains  ov. 
the  corresponding  shores  of  the  North  American  Continent  in 
the  Atlantic.  The  isothermid  lino  belonging  to  latitude  40-' 
on  tlie  latter  ocean,  passes  through  the  parallel  of  50''  in  the 
former.  For  lucid  illustrations  of  this  })rinciple  the  reader  is 
directed  to  consult  the  instructive  work  of  Lieutenant  Maury, 
entitk^l  '  The  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea.' 

"  We  have  the  autliority  of  eminent  meteorologists  for  the 
action  of  cold  under-cur rents  fiovring  fi'om  the  Arctic  Sea,  Avhich 
lave  the  rocky  foundations  of  the  island  during  the  hot  season, 
and  exert  their  tempering  influence  far  beyond  high-water  mark. 
The  Olymjiian  range  of  mountains,  in  AVashingtou  Territor}-, 
extending  in  an  easterly  and  westerly  direction,  regale  the  eye 
in  the  rich  sunshine.  The  proximity  of  their  grateful  summits, 
cap})ed  with  eternal  snows,  tends  to  modify  what  must  otlierwise 
be  the  intense  heat  of  mid-summer.  The  prevailing  winds  at 
this  season  come  fi'om  the  south,  charged  Avith  warm  moisture 
drawn  from  the  sea,  and  oppress  with  sultrmcss  the  atmosphere 
of  northern  regions  in  most  easterly  longitudes.  But,  by 
contact  with  the  neighboring  snowy  heights,  the  humid  ele- 
meiit  of  these  winds  is  condensed,  and  their  excess  of  caloric 
a})sorbed,  so  that  they  are  transmuted,  as  by  a  magic  touch  into 
breezes, 

'  Mild  as  when  Zophyrus  on  Flora  breathes! ' 

A  vast  rush  of  warm  water,  supposed  to  originate  at  the  Equa- 
tor, and  producing  climatical  eft'ects  resembling  those  which 
result  from  the  agency  of  the  Gulf  Stream  in  the  Atlantic,  soft- 
ens tlio  rigors  of  winter  as  the  boreal  action,  akeady  described, 
is  believed  to  cool  the  scorching  heat  of  summer.  The  phe- 
nomenon referred  to  is  called  the  China  Current,  from  the 
fact  of  its  sweeping,  m  part,  that  coast,  on  its  curvilinear  path 
across  the  ocean,  to  break  upon  the  shores  of  Vancouver's 
Island.'-^' 

*  Anotlier  of  tlicso  currents  makes  its  escape  through  the  Straits  of  Malacca, 
and  bi'ino:  joined  by  other  warm  streams  i'rom  the  Java  and  Chinese  Seas,  flows 
into  the  Pacific,  like  anotlier  Chilf  Stream,  between  the  Philippines  and  the  shore 
of  Asia.  Thence  it  attempts  vlie  p;reat  circle  route  for  tlie  Aleutian  Islands,  tem- 
pering climate,  and  losing  itself  in  the  sea  on  its  route  towards  the  northwest 
coast  of  America — as  with  the  (iulf  Stream  so  with  the  China  ('urrcnt. — Tho 
climates  of  the  Asiatic  const  correspond  with  those  of  America  along  the  Atlantic, 
and  those  of  Columbia,  Washington,  and  Vancouver,  are  duplicates  of  those  of 
Western  Europe  and  the  British  Islands. — Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea. 


CIJJIATE  OF  VANCOUVER  8  ISLAND. 


89 


"  From  observations,  t;ikon  duily  m  Victoria  during  the  years 
18G0-G1,  at  nine  a.  m.,  three  r.  m.,  and  nine  r.  m.,  it  appears  tliat 
the  lowest  mmn  of  the  thermometer,  in  that  period,  occuiTC'd  iu 
the  thirty-one  days  in  December,  1800,  wlieu  the  range  of  that 
instrument  averaged  41.2'2  ^  Fahr.  Twenty-nine  days  in  July, 
1801,  indicated  tlie  highest  main  to  bo  OO/J?^.  At  intervals  of 
from  seven  to  ten  years,  however,  as  in  Great  Britain,  winters 
of  unusual  severity  -^re  experienced,  when  snow  lies  on  tho 
ground  for  a  month  or  six  weeks.  But  with  iUo.  exception  of 
these  extraordinary  periods,  snow  continues  for  little  more  than 
a  week  ;  and  sliarp  frosts  extend  over  about  a  fortnight  of  tho 
year.  So  mild  is  tho  cold  season  generally,  that  cattle  can  find 
enough  of  food  in  the  fields  without  siiecial  provision  having  to 
be  made  for  their  shelter  and  maintenance. 

"  The  Avinter  of  1803-04  was  mild  throughout.  As  this  part 
of  the  sixbject  is  so  important  to  intending  settlerB,  with  respect 
to  consideration  of  health  as  well  as  to  farming  operations,  let 
us  take  a  past  year  at  random  to  aid  tho  reader  in  arriving  at  a 
satisfactory  conclusion  on  tho  matt(>,r. 

Dr.  llattray,  11,  N.,  attached  to  Her  Majesty's  ship  "  Topase," 
in  Esquimalt  Harbor,  in  1800-01,  carefuU}'  tabulated,  for  tho 
use  of  the  Admiralty,  tho  state  of  the  Avcather  from  tho  begin- 
ning of  April  to  tho  end  of  March  following  iu  those  years. 
Subjoined  arc  the  result  of  his  labors  : — 

No.  of  fine  days, 187 

"  wet  days,     ......  17 

"  showery  days, 101 

"  foggy  days,          .....  17 

"  days  with  strong  wind,       ...  35 

"  days  with  thermometer  below  freezing,  11 

"  davs  in  which  sncw  fell,      ...  12 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


^.^  4,%^      ^^. 


<    t" 


r/u 


^ 


A 


^ 


1.0    f-^  IM 


I.I 


11.25 


25 
22 


1^ 

1:  B4£   1110 


1.8 


1.4 


1.6 


&p 


^& 


90 


INFLUENCE   OP  CLIMATE. 


Temperature,  &c.,  of  the  Upper  Lakes. 

Situation  and  Mk.vj^  Annual  Temfeuature  of  the  Principal  Ports  on  the 

Upper  Lakes. 


il< 


:' 


FOBTB,  &C. 


Agafe  Harbor,  L.  S.,  Mioh., 
Ashland,  L.  S.,  Wis., 
Bayfield,     «         "      . 
Beaver  Bay,  L.  S.,  Minn.,   . 
Buchanan,  L.  8,,  Minn., 
Bruce  Mines,  Can.,     . 
Chicago,  L.  M.,  Ill,    . 
Colling  wood.  Can., 
Copi^er  Harbor,*  L.  S.,  Mich., 
Detroit,*  Mich.,  . 
Eagle  Harbor,*  L.  S.,  Mich., 
Eagle  Rii'er,  L.  S.,  Mich.,  . 
Escanaba,  Green  Bay,  Mich., 
Forrestville,  L.  Huron,  Mich., 
Fort  Gratiot,*         " 
Fort  WiUiam,  L.  S.,  Can.,  . 
Goderich,  L.  Huron,     " 
Grand  Haven,  L.  M.,  Mich, 
Grand  Portage,  L.  S.,  Minn., 
Green  Bay,*  Wis., 
Houghton,  L.  S.,  Mich., 
La  Pointe,  L.  S.,  Wis., 
Manitouwoc,  L.  M,,  Wis.,  . 
Macidnac,*  Mich., 
Marquette,  L.  S.,  Mich., 
Michigan  City,  L.  M,,  Ind., 
Micliicipoten,  L.  S.,  Can.,  . 
Milwaukee,  L.  M.,  Wis.,     . 
Munising,  L.  S.,  Mich., 
Neepigon,  L.  S.,  Can., 
Ontonagon,  L.  S.,  Mich.,    . 
Penetanquishene,  Can., 
Port  Huron,  Mich, 
Eacine,  L.  M.,  Wis.,   . 
Eock  Hfirbor,  L.  S.,  Mich., 
Saut  Ste.  Marie,*  Mich.,    . 
Sheyboygan,  L.  M.,  Wis.,  . 
Superior  City,  L.  S.,  Wi^.,  . 


Latitude. 

Longitude. 

Altitude. 

Mean 
Temp. 

o       / 

c 

1 

Feet. 

°  Fahr. 

47  30 

88 

10 

600 

41 

46  33 

91 

00 

600 

41 

46  45 

91 

00 

600 

40 

47  12 

91 

18 

600 

38 

47  33 

92 

00 

600 

37 

46  20 

83 

45 

576 

40 

41  53 

87 

37 

578 

47 

44  30 

80 

20 

574 

43 

47  30 

88 

00 

620 

41 

42  20 

83 

00 

600 

471 

47  28 

88 

08 

600 

41 

47  25 

88 

18 

600 

578 

41 

42 

43  40 

82 

34 

574 

45 

42  55 

82 

23 

598 

46 

48  23 

89 

22 

600 

36 

43  44 

81 

43 

574 

45 

43  05 

86 

12 

578 

46 

47  50 

90 

00 

600 

37 

44  30 

88 

05 

620 

44^ 

46  40 

88 

30 

600 

41 

46  45 

90 

57 

600 

40 

44  07 

87 

45 

578 

45 

45  51 

84 

33 

700 

40- 

46  32 

87 

33 

600 

41 

41  41 

86 

53 

578 

49 

47  56 

85 

06 

600 

38 

43  04 

87 

55 

578 

46 

46  20 

87 

00 

600 

41 

49  00 

88 

30 

600 

36 

46  52 

89 

30 

600 

40 

44  51 

80 

40 

674 

43 

42  58 

82 

25 

572 

46 

42  45 

87 

48 

578 

47 

48  08 

88 

50 

600 

37 

46  30 

84 

43 

600 

578 

40 
45 

46  40 

92 

03 

6O0 

40 

*  United  States  Military  Posts,  giviijg  the  elevation  of  Forts,  &c. 


PART  V. 
GREAT  LAKES,  OR  INLAND  SEAS. 


The  magnitude  of  the  Lakes  of  North  America,  together  with 
the  St.  LaAvrence  River,  is  an  interesting  theme,  being  fully 
comprehended  by  only  a  few  intelligent  minds.  They  deserve 
to  be  described  both  in  prose  and  verse,  in  order  to  have 
the  mind  fuUy  impressed  with  their  purity,  extent,  and  impor- 
tance, in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  as  well  as  their  climatic 
influence. 

From  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  passing  through  this  inland 
sea  and  the  St.  Mary's  Kiver  into  Lake  Huron,  and  thence 
through  Lake  Erie,  for  a  distance  of  upwards  of  1,000  miles, 
there  is  much  to  see  and  admire  ;  while  from  the  Falls  of  Nia- 
gara to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawi'ence,  for  another  thousand 
miles,  the  traveller  witnesses  the  most  grand  and  instructive 
lake  and  river  scenery  imaginable — passing  through  a  healthy 
region  of  country,  varying  from  36^  to  48^  Fahr.,  mean  annual 
temperature — the  dai'k  blue  waters  of  Lake  Superior  changing 
to  the  green  waters  of  LaJr.es  Erie  and  Ontai'io,  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  Eiver.  All  the  impediments  to  navigation,  for  the 
distance  of  about  2,000  miles,  through  the  Great  Lakes  and  their 
outlets,  are  overcome  by  a  succession  of  sliip-canals,  connecting 
with  the  tide  waters  below  Montreal.  Navigation  is  usually 
interrupted  by  ice  from  the  beginning  of  December  to  the  mid- 
dle of  April,  on  the  Upper  Lakes  and  St.  Lawi'ence  Kiver. 
Eiver  steamers  usually  start  from  Montreal  the  latter  part  of 
April,  and  anivals  from  sea,  at  Quebec,  commence  early  in  May, 
affording  seven  months  of  uninterrupted  navigation. 

LAKf;  Superior,  at  the  height  of  600  feet  above  the  sea,  is 
420  miles  long,  160  miles  broad,  and  aboiit  900  feet  deep.  It 
discharges  its  surplus  waters  by  the  Strait  or  Eiver  St.  Mary, 
fifty  miles  long,  into  Lake  Huron,  w!  ^'ch  lies  twenty-six  feet  be- 
low.   This  lake  is  computed  to  be  260  miles  long,  110  miles 


If 


92 


INFLUENCE  OF  CTJMATE. 


.a 


broad,  and  800  feet  deep.  A  world  of  waters  of  itself,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  Georgian  Bay,  on  the  northeast,  or  the  Saginmo 
Bay,  on  the  southwest,  both  embracing  a  large  expanse  of 
waters.  The  former,  however,  is  studded  with  innumerable 
islands  and  islets,  forming  a  perfect  labyrinth  for  about  100 
miles  along  its  northeast  shore,  being  entirely  within  the  con- 
fines of  Canada. 

LAiffi  Michigan,  578  feet  above  the  sea,  is  320  miles  long  and 
80  miles  broad,  and  about  800  feet  in  depth.  It  discharges  its 
waters,  in  connection  with  Green  Bay,  through  the  Strait  of 
Mackinac,  fifty  miles  in  length,  into  Lake  Huron,  nearly  on  a 
level.  Lake  Winnebago,  the  extreme  southwest  tributary  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  in  connection  with  the  Fox  or  Neenah  Eiver,  is 
an  interesting  body  of  water,  lying  170  feet  above  Green  Bay, 
or  Lake  Michigan.  Navigation  is  now  extended  to  tlie  head  of 
this  lake,  and  up  the  Fox  E,iver,  until  the  level  is  obtained, 
where  the  waters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  unite  with  the  waters  of 
the  Missifgippi,  by  means  of  a  -^anal  of  only  between  one  and 
two  miles  in  leng-th — the  junction  being  made  Avith  the  Wis- 
consin River  at  Portage  City,  near  old  Fort  Winnebago — thus 
forming  an  inland  navigation  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

The  accumulated  waters  of  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  and 
Huron  are  immense,  all  of  which  find  an  outlet  through  the 
St.  Clair  Eiver,  into  St.  Clair  Lake,  and  thence  through  Detroit 
Eiver  into  Lake  Erie,  the  fourth  great  lake  of  this  immense 
chain.  This  latter  lake,  again,  running  nearly  east  and  west,  at 
an  elevation  above  the  sea  of  5G5  feet,  is  250  miles  long,  60 
miles  broad,  and  200  feet  at  its  greatest  depth,  but,  on  an  aver- 
age, considerably  less  than  100  feet  deep,  discharges  its  surplus 
waters  by  the  Niagara  Eiver  and  Falls,  into  Lake  Ontario,  330 
feet  below.  The  river  is  thirty-five ,  miles  in  length ;  160  feet 
being  the  descent  at  the  Falls,  the  remainder  made  up  of  rapids 
above  and  below  the  Falls.  Here  navigation  ceases  for  about 
seven  miles,  from  a  short  distance  above  Niagara  Falls  Village 
to  Lewiston,  New  York. 

Lake  ONTAiao,  the  fifth  and  last  of  the  Great  Lakes  of 
America,  is  elevated  235  feet  above  tide-water,  at  Three  Rivers, 
on  the  St.  Lawrence ;  it  is  180  miles  long,  60  miles  broad,  and 


:J 


LAKE  REQION  OF  NOHTH  AMEMCA. 


88 


600  feet  deep.  Lake  Ontario  is  the  safest  body  of  water  for 
navigation,  and  Lake  Erie  the  most  dangerous,  owing  to  its 
elevation  and  low  depth  of  water. 

The  lakes  of  greatest  intei'ost  to  the  tourist  or  scientific  trav- 
eller are  Ontario  and  Huron,  together  with  Georgian  Bay  and 
North  Channel,  and  Lake  SujDcrior. 

LtJIlg  Region  of  North  America. 

la  treating  of  the  climate  and  phenomena  peculiar  to  tho 
Great  Lakes,  or  "  Inland  Seas"  of  North  America,  Foster  and 
Whitney,  in  their  Report  of  1850,  remark :  "  The  meteoro- 
logical influence  should  be  described  in  its  most  extended  sense, 
as  comprehending,  according  to  Humboldt,  all  the  changes  of 
the  atmosphere  which  seriously  affect  our  organs — as  tempera- 
ture, humidity,  variations  in  tho  barometrical  pressure,  the 
calm  state  of  the  atmosphere,  or  the  action  of  opposite  currents 
of  wind,  tho  purity  of  the  atmosphere,  and,  finally,  the  degree 
of  ordinary  transj^arency  and  clearness  of  the  sky,  which  ia  not 
only  important,  with  respect  to  the  increased  radiation  of  tho 
earth,  the  organic  development  of  plants,  and  tho  ripening  of 
fruits,  but  also  with  reference  to  its  influence  on  the  feelings  and 
mental  condition  of  men. 

"  To  tliis  great  student  of  na+ure,  science  is  indebted  for  liav- 
ing  first  suggested  a  system  of  lines^  called  Isothermal,  Isothe- 
ral,  and  Isochimenal  (implying  the  year,  summer,  and  winter), 
connecting  those  places  where  the  mean  summer,  winter,  and 
annual  temperatures  have  been  ascertained; — thus  running 
round  tho  globe,  defining  tho  frigid,  cold,  temperate,  sub-trop- 
ical, and  tropical  zones,  or  belts  of  temperature.  These  lines 
are  by  no  means  parallel,  or  defined  by  lines  of  latitude ;  various 
causes  conspiring  to  produce  divergencies — such  as  altitude 
above  the  sea,  the  geographical  configuration  of  the  country, 
the  presence  or  absence  of  large  bodies  of  water  and  mountam 
chains,  the  purity  of  the  sky,  and  the  prevailing  currents  of  the 
ocean  and  the  dii'cction  of  winds.'  This  latter  influence  is  fully 
apparent  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  American  ( Joutinervt,  as 
well  as  in  that  portion  of  country  where  tho  cold  blasts  from  oti' 
Hudson  Bay  and  Baffin  Bay  crowd  down  the  isu thermal  line. 

"The  presence  of  so  vast  a  body  of  fi-esh  wate  •  i\'-.  is  afforded 
by  the  American  lakes  modifies  tlu^  rango  of  \  ae  lihermometer, 
lessening  the  intensity  of  cold  in  the  winter  ai;<l  of  the  heat  in 
summer.  By  the  fr  -izing  of  the  water,  a  great  volume  of  heat 
is  evolved,  and  the  intense  cold  of  the  northern  winds  is  some- 
what mitigated  in  sweeping  over  the  open  lakes.  In  tho  sum- 
mer when  tlie  sun,  often  ynth  obscured  lustre,  shines  for  sixteen 


I 


94 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Mi 


If**!"' 


hours  in  twenty-four,  the  intensity  of  the  heat  is  modified  by 
the  breezes  which  are  cooled  in  their  passage  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  lakes,  the  water  of  which  is  always  at  a  low  tem- 
perature."* 

In  order  to  show  the  equalizing  effects  of  the  lakes  on  the 
climate,  we  need  only  refer  to  tlie  mean  temperature  of  the 
following  stations,  situated  in  nearly  the  same  parallels  of 
latitude : — 


stations. 
Fort  Howard,  Wis., 
Fort  Snelling,  Min., 


Mean  An. 
Latitude.     IjOngitudc,    Temp.    Winter. 

44^30'    88°  05'    44.50°      ?0° 
44°  53'    93°  10'    44.84°      10° 


Range  of 
Summer.    Tliermomctcr. 

68°      —14  +92 
71°      —33  -f-95 


Comparative  Fall  of  Rain  in  Inches. 


Spring. 
9.00 
6.60 


Summer. 

14.45 
10.92 


Autumn. 

7.84 
5.98 


Winter. 

3.36 

'^.00 


Year. 

34.65 

25.50 


Fort  Howard,  Wis., 
Fort  Snelling,  Min. 

Thus,  during  the  winter,  the  mean  temperatures  of  the  Lake 
Stations  are  higher,  but  during  the  summer  months  they  are 
lower,  whOe  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  nearly  the  same. 

Forts  Howard  and  Mackinac  are  both  situated  in  the  proxi- 
mity of  large  bodies  of  water,  which  essentially  modify  the  tem- 
perature ;  while  Forts  SnelUng  and  Eipley,  both  in  Minnesota, 
are  in  the  midst  of  a  vast  plain,  in  the  Valley  of  the  Upper 
Mississippi,  with  no  mountain  chaia  to  break  the  force  ot  the 
winds. 

Lake  Superior  forms  the  upper  basin  of  the  lake  region,  and 
is  the  largest  expanse  of  fresh  water  on  the  globe ;  it  is  fed  by 
more  than  eighty  streams,  none  of  which  attain  any  consider- 
able magnitude,  and  are  adapted  only  to  canoe  navigation. 
Those  which  flow  do-^vn  the  northern  slope  of  the  basin  are 
longer  than  those  of  the  southern,  and  tne  water  being  more 
exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  possesses  a  higher  ten: 
perature. 

Extent  of  the  Great  Lakes. 


Elevation 

Area  in 

Length. 

Breadth. 

Depth. 

above  Sea. 

Square  Miles 

Superior, 

460 

170 

800 

600 

31,500 

Michigan, 

330 

90 

700 

576 

22,000 

Huron,   . 

260 

110 

700 

574 

21,000 

Erie, 

250 

60 

200 

565 

9,000 

Ontario,  . 

180 

60 

600 

235 

6,400 

Total  length, 

1,480 

90,500 

*  The  water  at  the  surface  of  Lake  Superior  is  usually  the  same  as  the  mean 
temperature,  varying  from  40*  to  43°  Fahr. ;  but  at  sixty  feet  below  the  surface 
the  temperature  is  uniformly  at  38°  Fahr. 


If?''- 


by 

ir- 

m- 

he 
be 
)f 


THE  WATERS  OF  LAKE  SXJPEIIIOR. 


95 


The  St.  Mary,  St.  Clair,  Detroit,  Niagara,  and  St.  Lawrence 
Kivers  extend  this  great  water-course  940  miles  further,  before 
entering  the  GuK  of  St.  Lawrence,  making  the  entire  length  of 
water  communication,  2,420  miles — all  of  which  distance  is  made 
navigable  by  means  of  canals  and  locks,  having  a  descent  of 
600  feet  before  meeting  tide  waters,  near  Quebec. 

The  waters  of  the  St,  Clair,  Detroit,  Niagara,  and  St.  Law- 
rence Rivers  assume  a  hght  green  appearance,  which,  no  doubt, 
is  caused  by  the  admixture  of  coloring  matter  frtund  along  their 
banks,  strongly  contrasting  with  the  dark  green  waters  of  the 
Upper  Lakes,  which,  when  agitated  by  the  waves  or  ripple  of 
the  passing  steamer,  presents  a  brilliancy  pecuhar  to  these  pure 
waters ;  it  then  being  an  admixture  of  white  foam  with  a  hvely 
green  tinge  assuming  a  crystal-like  appearance. 

The  evaporation  from  the  surfaces  of  the  lakes  must  be  im- 
mense. The  combined  area  of  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan, 
Huron,  and  Erie  is  about  85,000  bquare  miles,  and  of  their 
basins  not  less  than  300,000  square  miles. 

"  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  quantity  of  water  passing 
into  Niagara  River  at  Black  Rock,  is  22,440,000  cubic  feet  per 
minute,  or  about  80.'  cubic  miles  per  annam.'^  This  is  equiva- 
lent to  fifteen  inches  perpendicular  depth  of  water  over  the  area 
of  the  whole  country  drained.  The  annual  amount  of  rain 
wliich  falls  within  this  area  is  about  thirty-four  inches ;  nearly 
one-half,  therefore,  of  the  water  which  falls  within  the  basin  oi 
the  Upper  St.  Lawrence  is  taken  up  by  evaporation. 

"  At  the  Saut  Ste.  Marie,  the  outlet  oi*  Lake  Superior,  the  spec- 
tator beholds  a  river  near  a  mile  in  width,  and  of  sufficient 
depth  to  float  the  largest  vessel.  Li  its  onward  progress 
it  \\ind8  among  numerous  islands,  and  ultimately  disc  Paiges 
itself,  by  several  mouths,  into  Lake  Huron.  At  Fort  Gratiot 
ho  sees  the  same  river,  under  another  name,  after  having  re- 
ceived all  the  tributaries  of  Michigan  and  Huron,  contracted  to 
a  width  of  about  1,000  feet,  but  of  increased  depth,  and  ho  finds 
it  difficult  to  realize  that  it  is  the  same  river  which  he  saw  three 
hundred  miles  above.  So,  too,  the  voyager  who  has  coasted 
around  Lake  Superior,  and  gauged  the  streams  which  pour 
their  annual  floods  into  the  ^eat  reservoir,  when  he  stands  on 
the  brink  of  Niagara,  and  witnesses  the  fearful  plunge  of  the 
cataract  is  induced  to  inqiure  what  has  become  of  the  super- 
fluous water.' 

The  "Waters  of  Lake  Superior. 

From  a  series  of  careful  observations  continued  through  a 
period  of  six  years,  from  1854  to  1859,  inclusive,  by  Dr.  G.  H. 
Blaker,  of  Marquette,  L.  S. ;  it  has  been  sho<vn  that  the  annual 

*  SUlimati's  Journal,  January,  1844. 


93 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


hi;     1 


iH  * 


rise  nnd  full  of  Jie  surface  of  Lake  Superior,  ranges  between 
t^'enty  and  twonty-eiglit  inches.  From  the  first  of  May,  Avhen 
the  snow  begins  to  melt  freely.,  until  the  first  of  September,  the 
surface  of  the  lake  level  continues  to  rise  constantl}^  about  six 
inches  a  month,  until  it  gains,  on  an  average,  two  feet  by  the 
middle  of  August ;  and  by  the  first  of  September  it  begins  to 
fall  and  so  continues,  through  the  winter,  until  about  the  mid- 
dle of  April.  The  permanent  rise,  however,  has  been  about  t2vo 
■inches  more  than  the  fall,  during  the  above  period,  so  that  in 
the  six  years  just  passed,  there  has  l)een  an  actual  rise  of  some 
twelve  inches  in  the  lake  level. 

The  cause  of  this  annual  rise  and  fall  has  ever  been,  with  the 
learned,  a  question  of  doubt,  and  the  following  hj'po thesis  has 
been  submitted  to  the  pubHc  for  inspection.  The  extreme  length 
of  this  extensive  body  of  pure  fi'esli  water,  from  east  to  west,  is 
about  470  miles,  and  from  north  to  south,  175  miles,  with  a 
mean  breadth,  however,  of  but  85  miles;  giving  an  area  of 
31,540  square  miles,  or  97,098,304,000  square  yards  of  water 
surface. 

The  distance  from  the  extreme  west  end  of  the  lake  to  the 
culminating  line,  dividing  the  waters  fi-om  the  Mississippi,  or 
more  western  rivers,  is  about  fifty  miles,  and  that  of  the  extreme 
eastern  end  is  about  eighty  miles ;  while  the  distance  on  the 
southern  side  is  but  twenty -five  miles,  and  that  on  the  northeni 
side,  up  to  the  head  waters  of  the  rivers  falling  into  James' 
Bay,  or  Hudson  Bay,  is  100  miles,  making  the  extreme  length 
of  the  lake  basin,  from  east  to  west,  of  ai)out  500  miles ;  and 
the  extreme  breadth,  from  north  to  south,  300  miles — giving  an 
area  of  150,000  square  miles,  or  464,040,000,000  square  yards. 

It  has  been  shown  by  observation,  that  the  Avholo  quantity  of 
water  that  falls  in  one  year  in  this  latitude  is  aboiit  forty  inches, 
or  If,  yards  in  depth;  therefore,  no  less  than  516,260,066,000 
cubical  yards  of  water  must  fall  in  the  lake  basin  in  one  year. 

From  the  above  figures  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  proportion  of 
water  to  land  within  the  lake  basin  is  as  1  to  41,  or  41  times  the 
water  surface  is  equal  to  the  land  surface  ;  when  it  follows,  that 
of  this  40  inches  of  water  that  falls  on  the  4!  parts  of  land  sur- 
face, would,  if  all  of  it  were  foimd  on  'y.'..^  one  part  of  water  sur- 
face, raise  it  4^  times  40  inches,  or  180  inches,  provided  that  the 
outlet  at  the  Saut  Ste.  Marie  was  closed,  and  the  area  of  the 
water  surface  continued  the  same.  But,  so  long  as  the  outlet 
at  the  Saut  continues  a  constant  quantity,  and  the  supply  a  con- 
stant quantity,  the  level  of  the  lake  would  be  the  same  through- 
out the  year,  il'  no  obstruction  to  the  supply  interfered. 

Both  from  experiment  and  observation,  it  has  been  seen  that 
the  amount  of  water  that  casses  off  from  the  surface  of  the  lake 


THE  WATEBS  OP  LAKE  SUPEIUOB. 


97 


by  evaporation  in  one  year,  is  equal  to  ]  3  inches  in  depth. 
Also,  that  the  ratio  of  evaporation  between  that  of  land  and 
water,  is  as  1  to  5,  very  nearly ;  and  since  the  land  surface  of 
the  basin  is  41  times  larger  than  the  war.er  surface,  it  is  plain 
that  it  would  give  or  losc!,  in  cubical  y.irds,  about  the  same 
amount  of  water  by  evaporation  that  the  water  surface  would  ; 
therefore,  one  yard,  or  36  inches,  must  be  deducted  from  the 
rise  of  180  inches,  leaving  but  144  inches,  or  12  feet.  Noav,  tlwt 
part  of  the  lake  basin  wliich  is  covered  by  water  is  almost  l! 
of  the  whole  quantity,  tlaerefore,  one-half  of  this  1 !  must  express 
the  whole  amount  of  water  that  passes  off  the  surface  of  the 
lake  by  evaporation,  equal  to  43,849,152,000  cubical  yards  of 
Avater ;  add  evaporation  from  land  surface  of  an  equal  amount, 
make  a  total  of  07,698,804,000  cubical  yards  of  water  to  pass 
off  by  evaporation.  Now,  from  the  whole  amount  of  water  that 
falls  in  one  year,  516,206,666,606,  deduct  the  full  amount  of 
evaporation,  and  there  will  remain  418,568,362,666  cubical  yards 
of  Avater  to  pass  down  the  St.  Marj^'s  River  in  one  year,  giving 
nearlj'^  14,000  cubical  yards  per  second  that  must  run  over  the 
rapids  at  the  Saut  Ste.  Marie. 

Observation  has  further  shown  that  12  inches,  or  about  ,-',5  of 
the  40  inches  of  water  that  falls  i  -ne  year,  comes  in  the  form 
of  snow,"^'  and  but  about  five  iui.  .s  of  this  amount  is  lost,  or 
passes  into  the  lake  during  the  ^'  'iter  season ;  the  7  inches, 
about  i  of  40  inches,  remains  o.  .i.e  ground  until  spring,  and 
is  cut  off  from  the  winter  supply,  and  must  be  added  to  the 
summer  supply  as  a  surplus,  since  it  must  lind  its  way  to  the 
lake  during  the  summer  season  with  the  amount  that  falls  dur- 
ing that  period.  Thus,  if  ^  of  the  winter's  supply  is  cut  off,  and 
the  outlet  remains  the  same,  it  is  plain  that  the  surface  of  the 
lake  must  fall  ,1  of  4'  fifths  of  12  feet,  equal  to  1.8,  or  22  inches 
nearly,  and  if  the  supjjly  which  was  cut  off  during  the  winter 
season  all  returns  to  the  lake  during  the  sumiuor,  tlie  rise  must 
be  about  equal  to  the  fall.  Whence  it  follows,  that  while  observa- 
tions give  a  mean  rise  and  fall  in  six  years  of  23.5  inches,  the 
hypothesis  advanced  gives  nearly  22  inches,  making  a  dis- 
crepancy of  but  1.5  inches,  wliich  may  be  accomited  for  m  the 
excess  of  water  that  must  pass  down  the  river  when  it  is  high, 
over  that  when  it  is  low. 

*  During  the  winter  of  IS.IB-SO,  snow  foil  at  Marquette,  Mich.,  to  the  deptli 
of  twenty-eight  feet  on  the  average,  extending  through  u  period  of  six  months, 
from  November  to  May,  inclusive.  In  April,  1S59,  there  was  on  tlio  gi-oimd 
four  feet  eight  inches  of  packed  snow  or  ice,  so  compact  as  to  bear  a  man  or 
horse.  This  fall  of  snow,  when  melted,  produced  fifteen  inches  of  water.  Thus 
this  immense  quantity  of  moisture,  lying  on  the  ground,  must  of  necessity  pass 
oli'into  the  earth  and  streams  tiowing  into  the  lake  during  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer months. 


«■ 


// 


m 


98 


rSTLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Low  Water  in  the  Lakes. — The  Dvlroli  Advertiser  says  tho 
low  otago  of  Avatcr  in  tho  Wcstorn  Lakes  is  soniothinp;  remark- 
able. A  fall  of  about  two  fi'ot  has  recently  taken  place  (1804),  and 
the  water  is  now  four  f(!et  lower  than  in  18G1.  At  some  of  tho 
ports  on  Lake  Huron,  it  is  now  difficult  to  make  landings,  where 
formerly  there  was  Ava!  .r  to  spare. 

Remarkable  Pheuomenon — Fluctuations  on  Lake   Superior. 

Professor  Mather,  who  observed  lue  barometer  at  Fort  Wil- 
kins.  Copper  Harbor,  during  the  jn'evalenco  of  one  of  these  fluc- 
tuations, remarks :  "  As  a  general  thing,  fluctuations  in  the 
barometer  accompanied  the  fluctuations  in  the  level  of  the 
water,  but  sometimes  tho  water  level  varied  rapidly  in  the  har- 
bor, while  no  s»ich  variation  occurred  in  tho  barometer  at  the 
place  of  observation.  The  variations  in  tho  level  of  the  -water 
may  be  caused  by  varietl  barometric  pressure  of  the  air  on  tho 
water,  either  at  the  place  of  observation  or  at  some  distant  point. 
A  local  increased  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  tlio  place  of 
observation  would  lower  the  water  level,  where  there  is  a  wide 
expanse  of  Avater;  or  a  diminished  pressure,  under  the  same 
circumstances,  Avould  cause  the  Avater  to  rise  above  its  usual 
level." 

In  the  summer  of  1884,  according  to  the  Report  of  Foster  and 
"Whitney,  made  to  Congress  in  1850,  an  extraordinary  retroces- 
sion of  the  Avaters  took  place  at  Saut  Ste.  Marie.  "  The  riA'er 
here  is  nearly  a  mile  in  Avidth,  and  the  depth  of  the  water  over 
the  sandstone  rapids  is  about  three  feet.  The  phenomena  oc- 
curred at  noon ;  the  day  was  calm  but  cloudy ;  the  Avater  retired 
suddenly,  leaving  the  bed  of  the  river  bare,  except  I'or  the  dis- 
tance of  about  tAvonty  rods,  where  the  channel  is  deepest,  and 
remained  so  for  the  space  of  an  hour.  Persons  went  out  and 
caught  flsh  in  the  pools  formed  in  the  rocky  cavities.  The  re- 
turn of  the  Avaters  Avas  sudden,  and  presented  a  sublime  spec- 
tacle. They  came  down  like  an  immense  surge,  roaring  and 
foaming,  and  those  aa'Iio  had  incautiously  Avandered  into  the 
river  bed  had  barely  time  to  escape  being  overwhelmed." 


Auroras,  even  in  midsummer,  are  of  frequent  occurrence  on 
Lake  Superior,  and  exhibit  a  brilliancy  and  extent  rarely  ob- 
served in  loAver  latitudes.  The  phenomena  of  this  kind  Avhich 
most  frequently  occur  are  the  following  :  A  dark  cloud,  tinged 
on  the  upper  edge  Avith  a  pale  luminous  liazo,  skirts  the  northern 
horizon.  From  this  streaks  of  orange  iwA  l)lue  colored  light 
flash  up,  and  often  reach  a  point  south  of  the  zenith.     They 


'«4»*', 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODU'TTS  OF  LAKE  SUPEIUOR. 


99 


rapklly  increase  and  decrease,  giving  to  the  whole  lioiriisplicro 
tlio  appearance  of  luminous  ■waves,  and  occas^ioniilly  forming 
perfect  corona.  TLey  commence  shortly  after  sunset,  and  con- 
tinue during  the  night.  The  \oyageui's  regard  them  or;  the  pro- 
cursoi-s  of  storms  and  gales,  and  our  own  observations  have 
confirmed  the  result.  Occasionally  broad  belts  of  light  are 
seen  spanning  the  whole  arc  of  the  heavens,  of  sufficient  bril- 
liancy to  enaijle  one  to  read.  In  the  autumn  and  winter  months 
these  phenomena  are  nuioh  more  f.-'c^quent,  and  the  ground  or 
snow  appears  tinged  with  a  crimson  hue. 

Mirage. — The  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  air 
and  the  waters  of  the  lake  give  rise  to  a  variety  of  optical  illu- 
sions known  as  miro/je.  Mountains  are  seen  witli  inverted  cones, 
headlands  project  from  the  shore,  where  none  exist.  Islands, 
clothed  svith  verdure  or  girt  with  clift's,  rise  up  from  the  bosom 
of  the  lake,  often  presenting  a  strange  appearance.  On  ap- 
proaching KeweenaAv  Point,  Mount  Hougliton  is  the  first  object 
to  gi'cet  the  eye  of  the  marmer.  In  peculiar  stages  of  the  at- 
mosphere, its  summit  is  seen  inverted  in  the  sky  hmg  liefore 
the  mountain  itself  is  visible.  On  approaching  the  nortli  shore, 
the  MamclonSy  or  Paps,  two  elevated  peaks  near  the  enti'ance  of 
Neepigon  Bay,  at  one  time  appear  like  hour-glasses,  and  at 
another  like  crater:.,  emitting  long  columns  of  smoke,  which 
gradually  settle  around  their  cones. 


Agricultural  Pioducta  of  Lake  Superior. 

On  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  where  is  to  be  found 
an  annual  mean  temjDcrature  of  from  40^  to  42^  Fahrenheit, 
being  about  the  same  as  at  Quebec,  Canada,  the  principal  pro- 
ducts of  the  soil,  as  found  in  the  forest,  are  Avhite  and  red  pine, 
hemlock,  spruce,  balsam,  and  cedar  of  the  evergreen  species ; 
sugar  maple,  soft  maple,  ash,  bu'ch,  bass-wood,  and  mountain 
ash  of  the  hard-wood  species  ;  wild  plums,  raspberries,  whortle- 
berries, and  cranberries,  are  found  in  abundance,  besides  many 
berries  of  inferior  quality,  and  wild  flowers. 

The  cultivated  fruits  are  the  hardier  varieties  of  ap])les,  pears, 
•  plums,  cherries,  currants,  and  gooseberries.  The  cereals  are 
wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley,  while  grasses  and  clover  of  differ- 
ent kinds  flourish  ail  along  the  lake  shore,  yielding  a  profitable 
return,  usually  producing  from  one  to  two  tons  of  hay  jicr  acre. 
The  vegetable  productions  are  potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  carrots, 


100 


INFLUENCE  OF   CLIMATE. 


8 

f  -it 


It 


parsnips,  cabbage,  pumpkins,  onions,  squash,  melons,  cucum- 
bers, Icttuco,  peas,  beans,  rhubarb  or  pie  plant. 

The  soil  consists  of  sand,  clay,  loam,  and  gravel,  the  former 
predominate '^'g  near  the  lake  shore.  Tlic  surface  soil  in  many 
locall'  Ics  is  rich  and  productive,  particularly  when  having  a 
southern  exposure,  or  protected  from  the  cold  cuiTcnt  of  air 
blowing  off  the  lake  from  the  nortliwest ;  the  land  breeze  or 
south  Avind  being  usually  warm  during  the  spring  and  summer 
months. 

The  streams  along  the  south  shore  are  usually  free  from  ice 
about  the  middle  of  April,  and  planting  commences  during  the 
early  part  of  May.  June,  July,  August,  and  September,  are 
usually  free  from  frost,  the  north  or  lake  winds  tending  to 
modify  the  air  during  the  early  months  of  autumn.  The  foliage 
of  the  forest  trees  are  affected  by  frost  in  October,  when  they 
assume  a  variegated  and  beautiful  appearance. 

Snow  appears  about  the  middle  of  November,  and  lays  dur- 
ing the  winter  months,  protecting  the  soil  fi'om  frost  in  the 
coldest  season.  Potatoes  and  other  root  vegetables  are  often 
left  in  the  gi-ound  and  collected  in  the  spring. 


"  Tho,  whole  face  of  the  lake  country  is  covered  with  a  dense 
forest,  imbroken,  save  by  the  clearings  of  the  settlers  and  a  few 
natiu'al  meadows  and  open  marshes,  which  are  scattered  here 
and  there  along  the  rivers,  especially  near  their  mouths.  The 
constitution  of  this  forest  is  such  as  is  characteristic  of  so  high 
a  northern  latitude.  The  i:)eculiarities  consist,  not  as  much  in 
the  introduction  of  new  and  exclusively  northern  species — for 
there  is  hai'dly  one  of  any  importance  that  does  not  occur  also 
in  the  highlands  of  the  Middle  States — as  in  the  increased  fre- 
quency and  predominance  of  certain  northern  types,  and  the 
total  absence  or  great  raritj'  of  many  Avhich  are  the  most  fami- 
Har  to  the  eye  ot  the  dweller  further  south.  Thus,  all  the  trees 
that  have  esculent  fruit,  the  oak,  walnut,  chestnut,  beach,  &c.,  are 
either  quite  Avanting,  or  of  very  unfrequent  occurrence ;  while 
the  spruces,  the  fir,  the  cedar,  the  red  pine,  the  birches,  the 
maple,  the  aspen,  poplar,  &c.,  are  the  prevailing  growth." — Fos- 
ter and  Whitiiey's  liejKH't. 


i 


PAPvT  VI. 


FORESTS  AND  PRAIRIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Limit  of  the  Woods. — "  For  o,  inimlior  of  dogroos  around  tlio 
North  Polo  the  amount  of  licat  is  insufficient  for  the  growth  of 
tliose  phxnts  vhich  tend  to  become  trees.  The  lino  of  limita- 
tion is  remarkably  distinct,  and  the  commencement  of  forests 
usually  so  sudden  and  uniform  in  their  position,  as  to  indicate  a 
fixed  laAv  of  temioerature  as  its  cause.  It  does  nc-t  form  a  circle 
v.ith  the  Pole  as  its  centre,  but  a  three-sided  area  with  rounded 
corners  ;  the  most  northern  side  roachinf^-  to  aboiit  latitude  70° 
in  Norway  and  Siberia,  near  the  level  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  while 
on  the  Western  Continent  the  limit  descends  from  tlie  Arctic 
Circle,  near  Behring  Strait,  in  a  nearly  dii'cct  line,  to  about  lati- 
titudo  60°,  near  Fort  Churchill,  on  Hudson  Bay,  and  crossing 
Labrador,  in  about  the  same  parallel,  strikes  over  the  Atlantic, 
south  of  Greenland,  excluding  that  large  country  and  Iceland 
from  the  regions  of  tree  growth."  The  vegetation  of  Green- 
land mainly  consists  of  grasses  and  lichens  in  the  north,  and  of 
a  few  scattered  birches,  alders,  and  willows  in  the  south,  where 
are  also  raised  small  quantities  of  grain,  potatoes,  turnips,  and 
otlior  hardy  vegetables. 

Dr.  llichaidson,  in  his  account  of  "  Expeditions  in  Search  of 
Sir  John  Franklin,"  tells  tis  that  at  the  mouth  of  Mackenzie's 
llivei ,  latitude  68°,  the  following  trees  occur,  generally  dwarfed, 
but  many  showing,  by  their  annual  rings,  a  very  great  age  : — 
Paj)er  birch,  green  alder,  American  aspen,  poplar,  white  sj)ruce, 
northern  willow,  balsam,  poplar,  and  northern  juniper. 

Further  south,  on  Mackenzie's  Eiver,  tlie  following  are  met 
Avith  at  the  Arctic  Circle,  67"'  30': — Che^:e  cherry,  gray  scrub-pine, 
black  spruce,  and  larch  tamarock  ;  ai  G2°,  American  balsam  fir ; 
at  latitude  59°,  he  fouid  black  wild-cherry,  and  American 
mountam  ash;  at  latitude  56°,  the  red  or  "Norvray"  pine. 
Crossing  from  the  basin  of  the  Mackenzie  to  that  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan, in  about  latitude  54°,  the  following  trees  make  their 
apjiearance  : — Smooth  sumach,  wdiito  ash,  gray  oak,  Canadian 
yew,  box  elder,  black  water  ash,  Canadian  arbor  vitio,  ground 
hemlock,  red  wQd  cherry,  white  or  weeping  elm,  and  red  cedar 
or  juniper. 

At  the  south  of  Lake  "Winnipeg,  (British  Amorica),  about 


|i 


I  i 


102 


rraXUENCE  OF   CLIMATE. 


latitudo  50^,  are  first  mot :  LincleTi»  basswood,  post  or  iron  oak, 
sugar  maple,  white  oak,  balm  of  Gilead,  poplar,  red  maple,  red 
lieacli,  white  piiie,  and  mountain  inaple.  Further  east,  in  the 
basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  St.  Lawrence,  the  folio-wing  species 
are  added : — Hemlock,  spruce,  fir,  Canadian  balsam,  black  birch, 
burr  or  overcup  oak,  chem-  or  sweet  birch,  yellow  birch,  and 
soft  aspen,  poplar,  cranberry  bushes,  raspberry  Inishes,  and 
whortleberry  bushes,  also  rbound  in  this  region  ;  being,  how- 
ever, destitute  of  any  of  the  nuf  bearing  species  of  trees. 

AH  the  forest  trees  found  north  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  about 
Hudson  Bay  nr"  also  me'  with  in  the  Unitinl  States,  as  well  as 
many  others  h  do  not  reach  to  this  limit  in  British  America. 

The  e;reat  r  region  of  forest  trees  extends  from  the  Rocky 

Mountains,  east,  to  the  coast  of  Labrador,  continuing  south 
along  the  Alleghanies  to  North  Carolina  and  Georgia,  as  far  as 
the  thirty-fourth  parallel  of  latitude. 

Near  latitude  44^,  on  the  ui)lands,  near  the  Atlantic  coast,  the 
fellov,-ing  trees  are  first  met  with,  A"iz. : — In  Maine,  great  laurel, 
green  ash,  button-wood,  or  sycamore,  butternut,  chestnut,  and 
northern  pitch-pine.  In  New  Hampshire,  sassafi'as,  shell-bark 
liickor}',  pignut  or  broom  hickory,  and  rock  chestnut  oak.  In 
Vermont,  northern  fox  grape,  winter  or  frost  grape,  flovrering 
dogwood,  rod  ash,  American  mulberry,  black  Avillow,  and  south- 
ern balsam  fir.  In  New  York,  cucumber  tree,  paw-paw  or  cus- 
tard a^^ile,  western  crab-apple,  yellow  pine,  locust  tree,  and 
thick  shell-bark  hickory. 

Th  ^  Atlaniic  iStaies,  south  of  latitude  45^,  and  m.s^  of  the  bor- 
der of  the  prairies,  which,  commencing  at  the  west  end  of  Lake 
Erie,  west  longitude  83^,  forms  a  curve  nearly  parallel  to  the 
Atlantic,  terminating  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  near  the  moiith  of 
the  IMississippi,  end  _  ing  all  the  Appalachian  region,  was  origin- 
ally covered  bv  a  .  ...se  forest  of  renuirkalile  richness,  both  in 
the  variety'  o  ncl  beauty  of  its  trees — in  this  respect  snrjiassing 
an}'  other  part  of  the  temperate,  and  even  many  parts  of  the 
tropical  zone.  The  quantity  of  rain  falling  on  this  region,  run- 
ning through  sixteen  degrees  of  latitude,  averages  from  thirty- 
five  uo  sixtv  inches  annually,  the  foui'  seasons  for  the  most  part 
being  about  equally  divided. 

The  great  "  Central  Plain"'  or  Prairie  Region  of  North  Ame- 
rica consists  in  their  comparative  destitution  of  forests  and 
nearly  uniform  surface,  graduall}-  rising  from  the  level  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  they 
attain  an  elevation  of  from  4,000  +o  5,000  feet.  This  im- 
mense tract  of  country  is,  for  tlio  most  i)art,  S2)aringly  sup- 
plied with  rain  and  snow ;  hence  the  forest  trees  are  mostly 
found  to  skirt  the  numerous  streams  which  fiow  onward  toward 


m 


FORESTS  AND   PRAIRIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


103 


tlio  Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  tlio  soutli,  and  Hudson  Bay,  on  tlio 
north.  The  v;illoj  of  Iho  Ilio  Grande  forms  tlic  southern  boun- 
dary of  this  treeless  or  half-wooded  region,  lying  east  of  the 
llocky  Mountains, 

The  Oregon  region,  extending  northward  to  British  America, 
west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  and  south,  about  latitude  ^10'^, 
embracing  Northern  California,  has  its  large  and  peculiar  group 
of  trees,  which  comph^tely  cover  thi  surface  from  the  level 
of  the  sea  up  to  the  regions  of  perpetual  snow,  excepting  a  small 
extent  of  pi'airie  foiiud  in  seme  of  the  valleys. 

On  the  North  Pacific  coast,  near  Sitka,  in  latitude  57^,  ex- 
tending southw;ird  to  Vancouver's  Island,  is  found  Sitka  si>ruce, 
broad-leaved  maple,  Oregon  crab-a})ple,  Oregon  alder,  western 
hemlock,  spruce,  Nootka  cypress,  red  or  black  lir,  and  Oregon 
white  oak,  and  other  species  ;  making  twenty  ncnv  form  of  trees 
in  this  far  northv.estern  region,  north  of  latitude  49"',  and  others 
will  doubth^ss  l)e  added,  showing  a  very  rich  forest  growth. 

At  latitude  'IS  ,  Straits  of  Fuca,  are  found  Oregon  ash,  ma- 
drona  laurel,  scrub  or  twisted  pine,  Oregon  3'cw,  heavy  yellow 
pine,  and  northwestern  larch.  At  about  latitude  47  ',  scrubby 
cherry,  Oregon  hawthorn,  CaUi'ornia  green  dogwood,  coast  Avil- 
low  and  }-ellow  lir.  In  Oregon  and  California  are  found,  in  ad- 
dition to  most  of  the  abovc^  species,  smooth  inanzanita,  ever- 
green chestnut,  downy-cone  s|;ruce,  Cascade  Mountain  spruce, 
Oregon  silver  fir,  California  nut  |)ine,  western  ])itch  pine,  sugar 
pine,  leafj'-cone  spruce,  California  grape,  California  buckeye, 
California  plum,  Mexican  sycamore,  California  red  oak,  red- 
wood, giant  redwood,  California  cedar,  California  white  oak,  and 
long  acorn  live-oak. 

^'•"vther  south,  between  latitude  oG^  and  32^,  Avest  of  the  Coast 
niouutaias  appear — Mexican  wahnit,  hvurel,  Bunuich,  sharp- 
toothed  live-oak,  obloug-leaved  alder,  hairy-pot,',  poplar,  Gou- 
an's  cypress,  Mexican  arbor  vitai,  Mexican  pistachio  tree,  and 
Torrey's  pine  ;  all  of  these  may  l)o  su]iposed  to  occur  in  the 
Pcnuisula  of  Lower  California,  and  nuiuy  oxttMid  their  range 
east  of  the  coast  mountains  toward  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

Very  littlcj  is  known  of  the  trees  of  Northern  Mexico,  or  of 
their  distribution,  between  latitude  32 "'  and  21) ',  where  abounds 
the  mesquite,  green  acacia.  New  Mexican  nut  ])ine,  Arizonian 
barberry,  Arizonian  live-oak,  saguaro  cactus,  ]>rickly  pear,  AVis- 
lizenis  ca  *"us,  Cliihuahuan  pine,  and  dillerent  species  of  willows. 

Many  ox  these  trees  of  the  southern  border,  along  tlie  boun- 
dary' lino,  scarcely  rise  above  the  growtli  of  shrubs  within  our 
limits,  and  they  are  accompanied  by  a  large  uumlx^r  of  tree 
shrubs,  which  cover  large  tracts  with  a  kind  of  miniature  i'oreiit, 
as  is  the  case  iu  portions  of  the  llocky  Mountain  range. 


ff 


I 


m 


104 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


The  successive  tables  of  land  with  wliicli  the  eastern  slope  of 
Mexico  rises,  fi'om  the  Gulf  to  the  centre,  have  each  peculiarities 
of  vegetation,  <fcc.,  sufficient  to  indicate  a  division  into  the  na- 
tural regions. 

The  northern  limit  of  forests  on  this  continent,  no  doubt,  de- 
pends chiefly  on  the  temperature,  although  careful  observations 
having  been  made  at  onl}-  few  and  scattered  localities  along  the 
line,  it  is  not  possible  to  say  what  isothermal  lines  correspond 
exactly  with  it ;  the  soil  and  moisture  forming  an  important 
element  in  the  growth  of  particular  species.  The  degree  of 
cold  to  which  the  temperature  sinks  in  winter  must  be  duly 
considered,  as  it  is  well  known  that  certain  trees,  particularly 
fruit-trees,  may  gi'ow  well  for  years  in  some  locahties,  and  then 
be  killed  by  an  unusually  cold  winter. 

The  main  points  established  in  regard  to  the  northern  limit 
of  vegetation,  on  the  American  Continent,  are,  that  it  reaches 
its  highest  ])oint  near  Behriug's  Straits  and  Mackenzie's  Eiver ; 
its  lowest,  at  or  near  Hudson  Bay,  about  longitude  95~^,  west 
fi'om  Greenwich,  following  near  the  mean  isothermal  line  of  20^ 
Faln\  The  first  of  these  facts  corresponds  Avitli  the  mildness  of 
the  winters  towards  the  North  Pacitic  coast,  the  second,  with 
their  severity  near  the  95th  meridian,  all  the  way  south  to  the 
region  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  eastward  along  the  46th  parallel 
of  latitude. 

Praiiie  Region. 

"  The  prairie  regions  form  a  great  feature  in  the  natural  vege- 
tation of  the  North  American  Continent.  A  line  drawn  from 
the  centre  of  Southern  Michigan  to  Cairo,  Illinois,  and  extend- 
ing southwestward  to  Texas,  woidd  form  a  rough  boundary  be- 
tAveen  the  wooded  and  the  treeless  country.  AVest  of  this  line, 
the  trees  are  generally  stunted,  unless  along  the  margin  of 
rivers,  whereas  the  country  eastwartl  to  the  Atlantic  coast  was 
almost  everywhere  densely  clothed  with  timber,  when  discovered 
b}^  Europeans. 

"  The  productive  powers  of  the  prairies  are  best  brought  out 
under  cultivation,  which  renders  the  light  and  open  mould  al)sor- 
l)ent  to  moistiire.  Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  are,  therefore, 
relatively  far  more  abundant  in  fluur  produce  than  grasses  or 
even  trees.  The  dry  prairie,  whit-li  only  vi^lds  annually  a  ton 
of  hay  to  the  acre,  after  it  has  been  seeded  with  timothy,  avlII 
produce  from  six  to  seven  quarters  of  ovda  for  twenty  years  in 
succession  without  mtmure,  and  still  i-how  little  falling  off  in 
quantity.  The  same  land,  when  well  cultivated,  will  produce 
fi-om  forty  to  sixty  bushels  of  Lulian  com,  with  upwa/ds  of  two 
tons  of  stalks  and  leaves.     I  do  not  know  of  any  instance  in 


y 


VEGETABLE  KINGDOM. 


105 


which  the  cultivated  pro  luce  of  the  soil  exceeds  that  of  the 
natural  growth  to  such  an  extent  as  it  does  on  the  prairies. 

"  As  illustrating  the  influence  of  climate  on  the  growth  of 
trees  and  other  plants,  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  banks  of 
the  streams  and  rivers  which  run  through  the  p-'-airies  are  inva- 
riably clothed  with  timber,  and  the  surface  of  the  ground  iS 
comparatively  destitute  of  the  dark  mould  that  is  found  in  the 
nak'^d  prairies,  and  forms  their  deep  fertile  soil.  Like  the  largo 
rivers,  the  smaller  have  also  dug  shallower  beds  out  of  the  soft 
plateau,  and  their  1)anks  ufltbrd  more  moisture  to  the  roots  of 
trees.  It  is  interesting  to  see  how  trees  clothe  the  sides  of  the 
streams  over  such  immense  stretches  of  country  in  the  prairie 
region,  furnishing  strong  evidence  in  support  of  the  opinion 
that  tlie  prairies  arise  from  a  deficiency  of  rains.  Dr.  Hooker's 
remarks  on  the  climatic  conditions  v/hich  favor  the  growth  of 
trees  in  different  parts  of  tho  Himalaya  Mountains  are  greatly  in 
favor  of  this  view.  Indeed  the  llanos  and  pampas  of  South 
America  are  but  extreme  instances  of  the  effects  of  a  want  of 
moisture  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  being  averse  to  the 
growth  of  timber.  The  thinly  timbered  lands  of  the  oak  open- 
ings in  Canada  West  are  the  first  symiitoms  as  we  go  westward 
of  the  climate  becoming  less  favorable  to  the  growth  of  trees  ; 
,.  ^d  as  we  api)roach  the  Mississippi,  the  aatural  grasses  that 
clothed  the  surface  of  the  ground,  when  the  white  man  first  took 
possession,  indicate  that  their  habits  are  better  suited  than 
those  of  trees  to  a  scanty  and  less  regular  distribution  of  rain. 

"  More  than  three-fourths  of  the  surface  of  Illinois  consists 
of  prairie.  In  many  parts,  not  a  tree  or  shrub  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  distance — a  circumstance  Avhich  has  prevented  its  being 
cultivated.  Y/ood  for  fuel  and  fencing  is  one  of  the  first  requi- 
sites to  the  working  farmer,  and  he  will  rather  hew  for  himself 
a  farm  out  of  the  forest  than  sit  down  upon  the  treeless  prairies. 
Immense  beds  of  bitumiuovis  coal  extend  through  the  countr}', 
however,  which  will  no  doubt  soon  be  made  available,  as  they 
are  often  found  very  near  the  surface." 

The  prairie  lands  of  Northern  Indiana,  south  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan, are  in  the  beginning  of  summer  beautifully  clothed  with 
grass  and  flowers,  presenting  a  most  lovely  appcaronce,  in  con- 
nection with  the  clumps  of  forest  trees,  in  the  distance  looking 
like  islands  in  the  occ an. 

"  The  Vegetable  Kingdom  of  America,"  says  a  late  English 
writer,  "  throughout  all  its  regions,  but  especiall}'  in  those  of  the 
Equatorial  Zone,  exceeds  in  the  rarity,  luxuriance,  and  nmlti- 
plicity  of  its  jiroduc^ions  the  botanical  riches  of  any  of  the  cor- 
respondiL'g  climates  of  the  Old  World.     Its  indigenous  flora 


i  I 


1  •:■» 


11 


i       I 


106 


INFLUENCE  OP  CIJMATE. 


already  number  in  its  classifications  ui)wards  of  15,000  pliane- 
rogtinii.  The  most  nortliernly  latitude  in  winch  vegetation  lias 
been  discovered  is  Melville  Island,  in  74^  30'  north  latitude. 
In  this  desolate  region  such  vegetable  opecies  as  grasses,  saxi- 
frages, mosses,  and  hchens  find  existence,  and  the  F rotococus 


nivalis,  which  exists  in  even 


higher 


latitudes,  tinges  the  snow 


with  its  crimson  ficnverets  ;  but  the  only  plant  of  woody  struc- 
ture it  is  capable  of  producing,  is  the  Arctic  willow,  which  here 
attains  onl}'  six  inches  in  lieight.  The  vegetation  of  Greenland 
and  of  the  coast  of  Baffin  and  Hudson  Bay,  bears  a  close  affi- 
nity to  that  of  tho  High  Alps  or  of  Lajiland,  consisting  of  stunted 
willows,  birches,  po])lars,  pines,  a  few  species  of  herbaceous 
plants,  remarkable  for  the  large  size  of  their  flowers  and  the  rap- 
idity of  their  development,  and  different  species  of  eryptogami, 
w!  ich  are  exceedingly  abundant,  covering  to  a  great  extent  the 
soil  of  these  polar  regions.  Proceeding  southwards,  we  meet 
with  vast  forests  of  spruce  firs,  beneath  which  the  reindeer  moss 
and  other  lichens  overspread  the  soil,  and  various  berry-bearing 
shrubs  and  papilionaceous  plants.  Next  follow  the  majestic 
poi)lars  of  Canada,  etc.,  pines,  birches,  various  oaks,  ashes,  but- 
ternuts, and  hickories.  On  the  southern  frontier  of  the  British 
Possessions,  the  sugar-maple  and  azaleas  abound,  many  kinds 
of  asters  stud  the  wootls  and  meadows  with  their  star-hkc  tloAV- 
ers  ;  and  wheat,  oats,  maize,  and  even  tobacco,  form  common 
field  crops,  marking  the  transitions  to  the  flora  of  the  United 
States.  The  American  elm  is  properly  a  Canadian  tree,  as  it  is 
in  the  north,  that  this  (the  m  -st  magnificent  of  the  Temperate 
Zone)  attains  its  finest  proportions.  The  botanical  region  of 
the  United  States,  including  the  whole  central  district  of  North 
America,  from  about  50 '  to  25^  north  latitude,  consists  of  the 
vast  and  originally  unintcrnipti'd  forest  tract,  extending  from 
Hudson  Bay  to  the  Mexican  Gulf,  and  westward  (but  confined 
to  the  banks  of  the  river),  far  beyond  the  Mississippi.  Some 
prairies  or  unwooded  tracts  occur  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  <fcc., 
and  in  the  southern  districts  of  Mississipjii  and  Alabama.  Of 
the  1-10  species  of  trees  which  are  found  in  this  forest,  more 
than  eighty  attain  a  height  of  sixty  feet  and  upwards.  The 
most  characteristic  are  the  hickories,  the  tupelas,  the  lyrioden- 
dron  or  tulip-tree,  the  taxodium  or  American  cypress,  the  locust 
and  coftee-trees,  and  the  negando.  It  likewise  i)rosents  numer- 
ous species  of  oak,  ash,  and  pints  and  possesses  several  of  the 
magnolia  tribe,  one  of  the  Gordonia,  the  sycamore  or  button- 
wood,  hquid  ambir,  and  the  tree-andromeda,  two  species  of  the 
walnut,  three  tilia,  the  red-bay,  hackl)erry,  kc.  The  shrubs  and 
herbaceous  plants  whieli  fonu  the  undergrowth  of  this  forest, 
belong  generally  to  the  classes  which  require  more  or  less  pro- 


VEGETABLE  KINGDOM. 


107 


tcction  from  tlie  sun.    In  tlio  prairies — ^I'egions  where  the  grasses 
usurp  tlio  domain  of  trees  and  shrubs,  the  uorthein  district  pro- 
'  analogy  to  the  Tartarian  Steppes,  not  only  in 


sents  a 


strong 


tlieir  physical  aspect  and  numerous  salines,  but  in  tli(  gay  pro- 
fusion of  their  floral  vegetation.  In  the  southwest  parts  vege- 
tation is  very  thinly  diilused ;  and  towards  the  Koi-lcy  Moun- 
tams  it  is  so  scanty,  that  the  name  of  desert  has  been  given  to 
an  extensive  tract ;  but  there  is  no  district  altogether  destitute 
of  streams,  o'  where  cactuses  and  yuccas  may  not  occasionally 
be  met  Avith,  or  even  some  cucurbitaceous  plants  and  grape- 
vines spreading  over  the  sands.  TJie  western  district  appears 
to  be  less  extensive  than  the  caste  j,  contains  fewer  but  not  leas 
gigantic  sj^ecies.  Spruces  prevail  in  the  northern  ;  ])ines,  ma- 
ples, oaks,  and  poplars  in  the  central  district ;  and  pines  (v.hite 
and  yellow)  in  the  southern  region. 

"  The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  North  American  flora 
are  exhibited  in  the  United  States.  Hero  the  forests  cousists 
of  pines  and  larches  unknown  in  the  old  world,  of  many  kinds 
of  oaks,  of  locust-trees,  black  walnnt  of  enormous  size,  hickories 
and  ashes,  among  Avhich  the  noble  tulip-tree  rears  its  towering 
head.  In  the  swamps  grow  the  decidixous  cypress,  the  white 
cedar,  two  species  of  fir,  the  rhododendron  or  rose  bay,  the 
glaucous  kalmia,  andromedas,  Sitrracenias,  and  the  glaucous 
magnolia.  The  sides  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  tho 
aii)or  vitie,  with  magnolias  and  hendock-spruces,  intermingled 
with  tho  arborescent  azaleas,  the  sorrel-tree,  and  the  beautiful 
mountain  laurel.  The  undergrowth  of  the  woods  and  plains 
contains  endless  varieties  of  the  aster,  several  species  of  azalea 
and  asclepias,  tho  dv.arf  pyrus,  and  the  exclusively  American 
genera  of  liatris,  phlox,  A'c.  Tobacco,  nmize,  and  wheat  are  the 
8ta])le  articles  of  cultivation.  Of  the  aquatic  plants  (nmu}^  of 
which  are  remarkable  f-n-  their  beauty)  tho  principal  are  tho 
hydrojjeltis,  the  orontium,  various  singular  sagittarias  or  arrow- 
heads, the  white  and  the  yellow  Avater-lily,  tho  Vallisiteria 
Amerii'dua,  used  as  food  by  tho  canvass-backed  ducks,  tho 
pickerel-weed,  ttc.  .  The  gramineous  species  contain  several 
gi'asses  of  peculiar  forms,  numerous  rushes,  tho  large  and  beau- 
tiful wild-ricc,  some  carices,  t\i:c.  Of  the  indigenous  fin-ns  (which 
are  very  numerous),  the  United  States  possess  none  in  common 
with  the  Old  World.  In  tho  wxovg  southern  districts,  from  35^ 
to  25  '  north  latititude,  the  vegetation  becomes  more  varied  and 
characteristic.  In  addition  to  the  greater  number  of  the  ab<)ve- 
mentioned  plants,  it  includes  many  belonging  to  warmer  tem- 
peratures. xVmongst  the  climbing  plants,  which  are  very  nu- 
merous, are  clematis,  vines,  passitioras,  tillandsias,  itc.  Among 
the  herbaceous  and  smaller  plants  are  several  lupines,  saiTa- 


n 


108 


lUIXUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


conias,  gentian,  the  fly-trap,  common  in  swampy  situations,  bnt 
like  the  Cahoniba  aqnatica  indigenous  likewise  in  tropical  cli- 
mates, sundews,  asarums,  amarylli,  the  superb  yuccas,  gerurdias, 
parietaras,  &c.  Acquatic  i)lants  also  abound,  such  as  the  mag- 
nificent, nelumbium,  the  nuphar,  lobelias,  kc.  ;  and  the  cane  (a 
gigantic  grass)  occupies  extensive  tracts.  To  the  west  of  the 
Eocky  Mountains  we  are  presented  with  an  entirely  new  botani- 
cal region,  distinguished  by  characteristic  productions,  but  pos- 
sessing some  species  in  common  with  the  eastern  district  of  the 
American  Continent.  A  single  pa3onia,  the  only  species  of  that 
plant  indigenous  to  America,  belongs  to  this  region.  The  vege- 
tation of  the  northwest  coast  bears  considerable  affinity  to  that 
of  the  United  States  and  of  the  opposite  shores  of  Asia.  In  the 
Southern  States,  the  climate  of  which  exceed  in  heat  and  hu- 
midity that  of  any  other  corresponding  latitude,  a  botanical 
region  is  presented,  in  wliich  the  productions  of  Mexico  are 
commingled  with  those  of  the  north.  Here,  in  addition  to  the 
principal  productions  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  cotton,  rice, 
indigo,  and  the  sugar-cane,  arc  objects  of  cultivation,  and  the 
plane  and  deciduous  cj-press  acquire  gigantic  dimensions.  A 
solitary  epidendron  inhabits  the  branches  of  the  Magnolia,  near 
Savamiah  ;  and  in  the  same  locality  is  found  the  Pinckneya,  a 
plant  allied  to  the  Peruvian  bark.  The  parasitical,  gigantic, 
long-moss  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  all  the  forests  of  the 
Carolinas,  Florida,  Alabama,  kc. 

"Southern  Mexico  exhibits  extreme  diversity  in  vegetable 
productions  ;  Avhilc  its  coasts,  as  well  as  the  shores  of  Antilles, 
present  those  of  tropical  regions,  the  botany  of  its  higher  ele- 
vations bears  considerable  affinit}'  to  that  of  temperate  latitudes, 
but  exhibits  some  productions  closely  related  to  equatorial 
species.  The  principal  productions  belonging  to  the  warm  re- 
gions of  Mexico  are  palms,  bananas,  plantains,  yams,  coifee, 
indigo,  sugar-cane,  maize,  the  cocoa-tree,  the  pine-apple,  which 
grows  wild  in  the  woods,  the  American  aloe,  and  various  cac- 
tuses, which  abound  in  localities  where  nothing  else  can  find 
existence.  The  low  forests  of  Honduras  produce  innnense 
quantities  of  mahogany,  logwood-trees,  tamarinds,  hgnum  vita^, 
and  vanilla.  The  jalap  abounds  near  the  city  from  which  it 
derives  its  name.  Of  the  numerous  productions  of  the  more 
elevated  or  temperate  regions  of  Mexico,  the  principal  are  oaks. 
The  higher  elevations  exhibit  many  species  of  plants  belonging 
to  European  genera,  such  as  valerians,  roses,  violets,  salvias, 
<tc.  The  Chcirostcmoii  jilatanohhs,  a  tree  remarkable  for  the 
beauty  and  singularity  of  its  organization,  forms  immense  for- 
ests m  the  northern  \'icinity  of  Toluca.  The  carvophylaceous 
and  rhodoraceous  tribes  common  to  northein  climates  here, 


HEAXTHY  AND   FRUmTJL  REGION. 


109 


forms  the  vegetable  of  altitudes  verging  on  the  regions  of  por- 
petuf^l  snow.  The  indigenous  vegetation  of  the  lower  districts 
of  the  equatorial  regions  of  America  ia  characterized  by  extromo 
luxuriance  and  diversity." 

Nortli'westeni  States — Healthy  and  Fruitful  Region. 

The  great  health-restoring  region  of  the  United  States,  cm- 
bracing  the  Upper  Peninsula  of  Michigan,  Northern  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  Dacota,  and  Montana,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
lies  between  the  forty-fourth  and  forty-ninth  parallels  of  lati- 
tude. Storting  from  the  Straits  of  Mackinac,  on  tlie  east,  it 
embraces  the  shores  of  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Superior,  includ- 
ing the  valleys  of  Upper  Wisconsin,  the  St.  Croix,  the  Upper 
Mississippi,  the  Minnesota,  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  and 
the  Upper  Missouri,  extending  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. 

The  coldest  part  of  this  extensive  region,  considering  its  lati- 
tude, is  on  the  southeast  border ;  Green  Hay,  Wis.,  44°  30' 
north  latitude,  ha\Tng  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  44°  Fahr., 
while  Si.  Paul,  Minn.,  44°  50'  north,  has  a  mean  of  4G°  Fahr., 
situated  live  degrees  of  longitude  westward.  Fori  JJcnfon,  Mon- 
tana, in  north  latitude  47°  49',  and  twenty-two  degrees  west- 
ward, has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  48^  Fahrenheit,  being 
one  of  the  warmest  stations  on  record,  considering  its  position 
east  of  the  Rooky  Mountains. 

Over  this  immen^ie  prairie  region,  which  is  destitute  of  moun- 
tain ranges,  and  for  the  most  part  of  a  large  growth  of  forest 
trees,  the  land  gradually  rising  to  an  elevation  of  1,500  feet 
above  the  ocean,  there  seems  to  be  a  healthy  influence  prevail- 
ing throughout  the  entire  year — particularly  in  regard  to  the 
absence  of  cases  of  consumption  and  malignant  fevers. 

It  is  diflicult  to  explian  satisfactorily  this  strange  phenomenon, 
but  the  following  influences  are  perceptible  to  an  observing 
mind  :  Clear  pure  water,  pure  invigorathig  air,  with  serene 
calms  and  alternate  high  winds,  and  ilelugiug  rain-storms  ;  an 
absence  of  fruit-trees,  including  chestnuts,  hickory  nuts,  and 
sweet  acorns,  all  of  which  seem  to  disappear  in  this  otherwise 
favored  latitude.  The  elm,  the  maple,  the  birch,  the  willow,  the 
poplar,  the  mountain  ash,  the  dwarf  oak,  the  white  and  Norway 
pines,  the  lirs,  and  the  spruces  prevail.  The  wild  animals  are 
mostly  of  the  fur-bearing  species,  while  the  birds  consist  of  tlio 
pigeon,  the  prairie-hen,  the  partridge,  the  hawk,  the  eagle, 
ducks,  wild  geese,  and  gulls  on  the  large  bodies  of  water.  The 
agricultural  products  are  principally  wheat,  oats,  hay,  potatoes, 
and  other  kinds  of  vegetables,  wliich  are  j^roduced  in  great 
abundance. 


ii 


I 


no 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


I 


In  tlio  vicinity  of  St.  Paul,  and  northwest  ward  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  a  Siberian  summer  prevails,  giving  throe  or  four 
months  of  warm  weather,  hein^if  ample  time  to  ripen  all  the  cere- 
als, grasses,  and  vegetables.  The  summer  temperature  of  this 
region  is  its  most  remai'kable  feature — it  being  as  warm  in  St. 
Paul  during  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  as  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  situatoil  about  -1-'  southward — this  same  sum- 
mer temperature  extending  northwestward  to  the  valley  of  the 
Red  River  of  the  North,  in  48-'  north  latitude.  Minnesota  may 
1)0  said  to  excel  any  of  the  "Western  States  in  men,  women, 
horses,  wheat,  and  vegetables,  owing  to  its  pure  atmosphere 
and  fruitful  soil :  and  any  portion  of  the  Union  in  a  healthy  and 
invigorating  cUmate. 

When  these  kno^v^l  results  are  obtained,  how  can  we  recon- 
cile them  with  the  climate  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior 
and  on  the  coast  of  Labrador,  where  the  growth  of  grain  and 
vegetables  ceases  ?  The  only  reasonable  solution  is,  that  one  is 
influenced  by  warm  currents  of  air  from  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean,  flowing  over  Russian  and  British  America,  and  tlit^  other 
by  the  cold,  chilling  winds  from  Hudson  Bay  and  BatHn's 
Bay,  which  come  sweeping  down  from  within  the  Arctic  Circle, 
lowering  the  temperature  in  Canada,  and  the  whole  of  the 
United  States  east  of  Lake  Superior,  including  the  Atlantic 
States  to  the  coast  of  Florida. 

While  the  warm  summer  weather  does  not  prevail  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Superior,  the  same  beneficial  results  are  obser- 
vable in  regard  to  the  jirevalence  of  health.  Hero,  during  the 
summer  months,  the  weather  is  very  changea1)le,  usually  rang- 
ing from  50^  to  70^  Fahr.,  being  a  dift'erenco  of  about  10-'  from 
the  summer  temperature  of  St.  Paul  and  its  vicinity.  It  is, 
however,  perccpti])ly  warmer  at  Superior  City,  ac  the  west  end 
of  the  lake,  than  at  Marquette,  or  the  nn^re  eastern  portion  of 
this  great  inland  sea. 

On  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior  the  clouds  usually  nm 
low  and  give  out  a  chilling  influence,  which  gi-e.'ttly  retards 
vegetation — hence  the  agricultural  jiroducts  will  never  vie  v.-ith 
those  of  the  Upper  Mississipj^i,  or  the  Red  River  of  the  North. 
The  mineral  wealth,  however,  of  this  region  is  inexliaiistil)e, 
both  on  the  American  and  Canadian  shores,  which,  combined 
with  its  health-restoring  influence,  will  always  make  Lake  Su- 
perior a  great  place  for  business,  and  resort  for  invalids  and 
pleasure-seekers. 

The  influence  of  the  Great  Lakes  in  raising  the  ivinfer  tem- 
perature and  depressing  the  summer  temperature  of  Wisconsin 
and  surrounding  country,  is  most  singiilarly  shown  on  a  map 
ckawn  by  J.  A.  L.vriLiM,  L  L.  D.    From  this  exliibit  of  the  mean 


HEALTHY  AND  FP.UITFUL  REGAIN. 


Ill 


temperature  of  Jiiunarv  (13^  Fulir.),  it  appears  tliat  it  is  no 
colder  on  Keweenaw  Point,  Lake  Suiicuior,  (47°  north  latitude) 
than  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  Minn.,  in  45^,  being  distant 
about  l-]00  miles  in  a  southwest  direction.  The  mer^n  tempera- 
ture dui'ing  the  same  month  at  Mackinae,  Mich.,  40^  nortli 
latitude,  (19^Fahr.),  l)ein;^'  the  sanu;  as  at  Prairie  du  Ciiien, 
Wis.,  i'6\  being  distant  about  100  miles  in  the  same  direction. 

The  difference  in  the  JiiJi/  temperature  (72°  Fahr.)  is  ecpially 
singiilar,  it  being  al)out  the  same  in  St.  Anthony  as  in  Cliicago, 
111.,  situated  alx.ut  3  '  southeast — thus  rev(n'sing  the  influence 
of  the  January  temperature — showing  conclusively  that  the 
Great  Lakes,  or  other  controlling  influences  operate  most 
strangely  in  producing  this  singular  phenomena. 

The  July  temperature  again  rises  on  the  east  side  of  Lake 
Michigan,  which  is  continued  through  the  summer  and  autunui 
months;  thus,  no  doubt,  producing  a  favorable  effect  on  the 
growth  of  fniit  of  different  species,  for  which  Western  Michigan 
is  celebrated. 

The  summer  temperature  (70'  Fahr.)  is  the  same  in  the  City 
of  New  York,  Pittsburgh,  Cliicago,  and  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  con- 
tinuing northwestward  to  the  Pved  Eiver  of  the  North,  where 
corn  and  mo.':t  kinds  of  grain  and  vegetables  alike  flourish. 

The  rain  or  moisture  A\hich  falls  on  this  line  or  belt,  extend- 
ing for  about  2,000  miles,  is  about  the  same  during  the  summer 
mouths,  but  much  less  during  the  winter  months  in  Minnesota 
and  the  adjacent  regions — ten  inches  of  moisture  in  the  shape 
of  rain  or  snow  falling  in  the  Middle  States,  while  only  two 
inches  of  moistiu-e  in  the  shape  of  snow  falls  in  the  vicinity  of 
St.  Paul,  Minn.,  while  the  aii*  is  extremel}'  cold,  dry,  and  invig- 
orating. 

These  well-established  facts  in  regard  to  the  extensive  region 
drained  by  the  Mississippi,  the  Missouri,  and  the  Red  lUversof 
the  North,  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  American  pul)- 
lic,  as  the  favorable  climate  and  soil  are  not  conflned  to  Min- 
nesota and  Dacota,  but  extend  north  to  the  valleys  of  the  Assi- 
niboiue  and  Saskatchewitn  Rivers  in  British  America.  A  writer 
says :  "  I  have  seen  Indian  corn  growing  at  Red  Lake,  m  lati- 
tude 48"  north,  which  produced  thirty  bushels  to  the  acre.  Fur- 
ther west,  in  Minnesota  and  Dacota,  and  north  in  the  valley  of 
the  Red  lliver,  about  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  in  the  valley  of  the 
Saskatchewan,  is  a  tract  large  enough  for  several  States,  where 
wheat  flourishes  as  a  certain  and  abundant  crop.  Those  who 
consider  this  extreme  region  to  be  a  cold  barren  waste,  make  a 
gross  mistake." 

Railroads  are  now  in  progress  of  construction,  extending 
north  and  west  from  St.  Paul  toward  Pembina,  situated  on  tho 


m 

Of 


) .  V. 


( -'^ 


112 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIJIATE. 


Hed  Ftivor  of  tho  North,  and  towanl  Fort  Union  on  tlio  Upper 
Missouri,  to  bo  contiuuetl  westward  tlirongli  Montana  and  Idalio 
to  Pu,t^et's  Sound.  Soon  tho  shrill  whistle  of  tho  locomotive 
■will  bo  lu'ard  on  these  extensive  jirairies,  givinji;  life  to  this  new 
region  of  country,  destined  ere  long  to  contain  millions  of  hardy 
freemen. 

The  Geography  of  Consumption. 

"  Consumption  originates  in  all  latitudes,  from  the  Equator, 
whcro  tho, mean  temperature  is  80^  Fahrenheit,  with  slight 
variations,  to  the  higher  position  of  tho  Temperate  Zone,  where 
the  mean  temperature  is  ■iO\  with  sudden  and  violent  changes. 
The  opinion  long  entertained  that  it  is  peculiar  to  cold  and  hu- 
mid climates,  is  founded  in  error.  Far  trom  this  being  the  case, 
the  tables  of  mortality  warrant  the  conclusion,  that  consump- 
tion is  sometimes  more  prevalent  in  tropical  than  in  tcm]>erato 
countries.  Consumption  is  rare  in  the  Arctic  regions,  in  Si- 
beria, Iceland,  the  Orkneys,  and  Hebrides,  also,  in  tho  north- 
western portion  of  tho  United  States. 

"  In  North  America  '  the  disease  of  the  resjiiratory  organs,  of 
which  consumption  is  the  chief,  have  their  maximum  in  Now 
England,  in  latitude  about  42"',  and  diminish  in  all  directions 
from  this  point  inland.  Tho  diminution  is  quite  as  rajiid  west- 
ward as  southward,  and  a  large  district  near  the  fortieth  paral- 
lel is  quite  uniform  at  twelve  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  deaths  from 
consumption,  while  Massacluisetts  varies  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
live.  At  the  border  of  the  dry  climate  of  the  plains,  in  Minne- 
sota, a  minimum  is  attained  as  low  as  that  occurring  in  Florida, 
and  not  exceeding  five  per  cent,  of  the  entire  mortality.  It  is 
still  lower  in  Texas,  and  tlie  absolute  minimum  for  the  continent 
in  temperate  latitudes  is  in  Southern  California.' 

"  The  Upper  Peninsula  of  Michigan,  embracing  the  whole  of 
the  Lake  Superior  region,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  Washing- 
ton Territory,  are  all  alike  exempt,  in  a  remarkable  degree,  from 
the  above  fatal  disease.  Invalids  suffering  from  pulmonary 
complaints  and  throat  disease  are  almost  uniformly  benefited 
by  the  climate  of  the  above  northern  re^on,  having  a  mean  an- 
nual temperature  of  fi'om  40^  to  50 ^  Fahrenheit. 

Biseases  of  the  Respiratory  System. 

With  reference  to  diseases  of  the  REariRATOKY  System,  Assis- 
tant Surgeon  G.  K.  Wood,  U.  S.  A.,  stationed  at  Fort  Laramie, 
submits  tho  following  remarks : — 

"  The  climate  of  these  broad  and  elevated  table-lands  which 
skirt  the  base  of  tho  llocky  Mountains  on  the  east,  is  especially 
beneficial  to  persons  suffering  from  pulmonary  diseases,  or  with 


DISEASES  OP  THE  RESniUTOllY  HYSTIiM. 


113 


a  srrqfulom  diathefiis.  This  has  been  known  to  tho  French  in- 
habitants of  tho  Upper  Mississippi  ivnd  Missouri  for  many  yours  ; 
find  it  has  been  their  custom,  since  tho  settlement  of  that  por- 
tion of  the  country,  to  send  tlio  younper  members  of  their 
families,  Avho  showed  any  tendt>ncy  to  diseases  of  tho  lunj^'s,  to 
pass  their  youth  amouf^  tho  trappers  of  tho  plains  and  moun- 
tains. The  beneficial  result  of  this  c(MU'se,  no  doubt,  depends, 
in  ft  gi'eat  measure,  upon  the  mode  of  life  led  by  these  jjcrsons 
— their  regular  habits,  constant  exercise  in  tho  open  air,  and 
the  pbseuco  of  the  enerv<itin<(  iutluences  incident  to  life  in  cities  ; 
but  that  more  is  due  to  the  cllniafr.  itself,  is  shown  by  the  fact, 
that  amonp  the  troops  stationed  in  this  rejj;iou  (whose  habits  are 
much  the  same  everywhere),  this  class  of  disease  is  of  very  rart^ 
occurrence.  The  reports  from  the  lino  of  posts  stretchinj,'  from 
the  Upper  Platte,  through  New  Mexico,  to  the  Rio  Grande,  give 
a  smaller  proportion  of  cases  of  pulmonary  disease  than  those 
from  any  other  portion  of  the  United  States.  The  air  in  this 
region  is  almost  devoid  of  moisture  ;  there  arc  no  very  sudden 
changes  of  temperature  ;  tho  depressing  heats  of  the  eastern 
summers  are  never  felt ;  and  although  in  the  north  tho  winters 
aro  extremely  cold,  a  stimulant  and  tonic  efi'cct  is  the  (mly  re- 
sult of  exposure  in  the  open  air. 

He  adds  :  "  It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  clunatc  of  this 
region  should  bo  generally  known,  that  the  present  injudicious 
course  of  sending  consumptives  to  the  hot,  low,  and  moist  coast, 
and  the  islands  of  tho  Gulf  of  Mexico,  should  be  abandoned. 
In  diseases  of  debility,  the  remedies  are  tonics  and  stimulants. 
What  is  more  debilitating  than  affections  of  the  lungs?  and 
what  less  tonic  than  heat  and  moisture  combined,  as  is  found  in 
the  climate  of  the  Gulf  coast  ?  It  is  simply  not  cold,  and  has 
no  other  advantage  over  the  Northern  States.  The  towns  of 
New  Mexico  (or  still  further  north)  shoidd  be  selected  as  a  ref- 
uge for  those  showing  a  tendency  to  disease  of  the  lungs,  or 
scrofula,  anywhere  east  of  the  llocky  Mountains,  and  west  of 
tlie  region  where  '  noi;thers '  prevail. 

Assistant  Surgeon  II.  Bahtiiolomew  remarks :  "  A  question 
well  worthy  of  consideration,  Is  this  climate  adapted  to  the 
amelioration  and  cure  of  the  tubercular  diathesis  ?  As  phthisis 
is  annually  on  tho  increase  in  tho  United  States,  and  as  tho 
subject  of  its  hygienic  manxgcmcnt  proves  to  be  more  impor- 
tant than  tho  treatment  hy  medicaments,  tho  consideration  of 
the  climate  is,  necessarily,  of  the  first  consequence.  In  my  re- 
port I  remarked  the  beneficial  influence  of  the  journey  over  the 
plains  upon  those  in  whom  '  a  phthisical  tendency  was  marked 
and  imminent.'  The  purity  of  the  atmosi)here  and  the  equabil- 
ity and  dryness  of  tho  climate  are  conditions  highly  favorable 


f|i 


,t.  i 


114 


INTI.UENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


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I 


il 

to  such  improvement.  Tlio  entire  immunity  of  the  mountaineers 
from  all  forms  of  pulraouary  disease  indicates  the  healthfulness 
of  the  country  in  this  particular.  Moreover,  the  various  com- 
mands stationed  at  F<n't  Laramie,  have  boon  lemarkably  free 
from  all  forms  of  pulmonary  disease,  and  all  such  as  came 
thither  laboring  under  the  incipient  or  well  estabUshed  symp- 
toms of  consumption  spec^dily  improved." 

Meteorological  Observations  kept  at  Fort  Laramie. 


Latitude,  43 

^  13' ;  Longitude, 

104"  47'; 

Altitude,  4,519  foot. 

Month. 

Mean  Temp. 

Highest 

Lowest. 

Fall  of  Rain 

°  Fabr. 

°  Fahr. 

"  Fahr. 

Inches. 

January, 

31.03 

53 

11 

.27 

February,     . 

32.60 

67 

—4 

.71 

March, 

3G.81 

70 

9 

1.37 

April,    . 
May,     . 

47.00 

71 

82 

1.93 

5G.11 

69 

83 

5.39 

June,    . 

07.34 

88 

49 

2.95 

July,     . 

74.70 

87 

69 

1.83 

August, 

73.78 

94 

66 

.94 

September,  . 

04.21 

91 

86 

1.33 

October, . 

50.01 

76 

20 

1.26 

November,    . 

35.83 

66 

22 

1.37 

December,    . 

27.98 

68 

13 

0.65 

Yearly  Mean,  .         50.00 


20.00 


COMPAEISON  BETWEEN  FORT  LIRAJHE  AND  FORT  BENTON. 

Fort  Laramie,  Dacota  Territory. 

Temperature.'    Fahr. 
Lat.  Long.        Alt.  feet.     Spring.    Sum.      Autumn.      Win.    Year. 

42=^12'    104^47'     4,519       49°      73°         50°       30°      50° 

Fort  Bentox,  Montana  Territory. 

Temperature.      Fahr. 
Lat.  Long.        Alt.  feet.     Spring.    Sum.      Autumn.       Win.    Year. 

47°  49'    110°  36'     2,780       49°     72°         44°        25°    48° 

"  Forts  Benton  and  Laramie  hold  a  similar  position  in  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  and  seem  to  be  wholly  influenced  by  tho 
climate  of  the  western  part  of  the  continent." — Governor  I.  J. 
Stevens'  Northern  Facijic  Railroad  Report,  1855. 


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PART  VII. 
CLIMATIC  BOUxNDARY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


11 


The  United  States  of  America,  extending  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  is  washed  by  two  great  oceans,  one  on  the  east 
and  one  on  the  west,  each  exercising  a  groat  and  varied  cUmatic 
influence.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  British  Posses- 
sions, and  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf  and  Repubhc  of  Mexico. 
Its  extremes  of  Lititude  are  from  24.]^  to  49°  north,  and  fi'om 
67°  to  125°  west  h)ngitude,  from  Greenwich. 

Its  Northern  Hmit,  on  the  Athmtic  side,  is  47°  15'  north  lati- 
tude, where  stands  Fort  Kent,  Maine,  having  a  mean  annual 
temperature  of  37°  Fahrenheit ;  centrally,  at  Pembina,  Minn., 
49°  north  latitude,  having  a  ?  lean  annual  temperature  of  38°. 
On  the  Pacific  side  (Puget's  Sound),  its  northern  hmit  is  48°  30' 
north  latitude,  h.ere  having  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  50° 
Fahr. ;  variation,  1JI°  Fahr. 

Its  Eastern  limit,  on  the  Atlantic,  in  north  latitude  44°  54' ; 
G6°  58'  west  longitude,  from  Greenwich  (Eastport,  Me.),  having 
a  mean  annual  temperature  of  43°  Fahr. ;  centrally,  Norfolk, 
Va.,  near  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  3G°  45'  north  latitude, 
having  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  00°.  On  the  Atlantic 
coast,  in  25°  north  latitude ;  81°  west  longitude  (the  southern 
pai*t  of  Florida),  having  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  76° 
Fahr. ;  variation,  33°  Fahr. 

Its  Southern  limit  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  (Key  West),  24°  32' 
north  latitude,  having  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  76°  Fahr. ; 
centrally  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eio  Grande  (Fort  Brown,  Texas), 
25°  53'  north  latitude,  having  a  mean  annual  temperature  of 
74°.  On  the  Pacific  side,  32°  31'  north  latitude  ;  117 '  06'  west 
longitude  (near  San  Diego,  Cal.),  having  a  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  62°  Fahr. ;  variation,  1 4°  Fahr. 

Its  Western  limit  on  the  Pacific  coast,  (San  Diego),  ha%'ing  a 
mean  annual  temperatui-e  of  62°  Fahr. ;  centrally,  San  Francisco, 


m 


i 


U^i 


116 


INFLUINCE  OF    CLIMATE. 


37^  48'  north  latitude  ;  122°  26'  west  longitude,  having  a  mean 
annual  temperature  of  55  \  On  the  Strait  of  San  Juan  de  Fuca, 
(Cape  Flattery),  48"  30'  north  latitude  ;  124-^  40'  west  longitude, 
here  having  a  mean  annual  tomperatiu-e  of  50 '  Fahr. ;  varia- 
tion, 12^  Fahr.  Its  extremes  of  mean  annual  ieinperatares  are 
from  37"^  to  77^  Fahr.,  and  running  through  24.]  degrees  of 
latitude,  and  40  degrees  of  temperature.^- 

Within  this  wide  limit,  embracing  upwards  of  3,000,000 
square  miles,  are  produeed  on  the  Ntn-tli  all  the  more  hardy 
products  of  the  forest,  furnishing  the  finest  of  timber,  together 
with  the  cereals,  the  grasses,  and  the  vegetables.  On  the 
South  is  produced  cotton,  rice,  sugar,  and  most  of  the  fruits 
peculiar  to  a  warm  or  8ub-troi)ical  chmatc — thus  placing  the 
United  States,  in  a  chmatic  point  of  view,  in  the  best  possible 
position  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 

The  Atlantic  slope,  for  the  most  part,  is  favored  with  a 
healthy  chmate,  and  rich  in  agricultural  and  mineral  products. 
West  of  the  Alleghany  range  of  mountains,  the  great  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  presents  a  virgin  soil  and  favorable  climate,  which, 
combined  with  the  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes,  fiu'nishes  a  culti- 
vable field  unequalled  m  the  Eastern  or  Western  ContLneut. 

The  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States,  for  about  half 
its  distance  across  the  continent,  runs  nearly  parallel  to  the 
northern  limit  of  the  Temperate  Zone  (40^  mean  annual  tem- 
perature), above  which  Imo  killing  frosts  are  liable  to  occur 
during  each  of  the  summer  months — hence  the  uncertainty  of 
raising  grain  or  vegetables  north  of  the  Upper  Lakes. 

To  the  south  of  the  United  States  boundary  along  the  con- 
fines of  Mexico,  the  climate  assumes  a  tropical  ca::racter. 
"  The  boundary,"  says  Colonel  Emory,  "  is  embraced  in  the 
zone  separating  the  tropical  from  the  sub-tropical  or  temperate 
regions.  It  is  indeed  a  ncufrcd  re^fi'on,  having  peculiar  charac- 
teristics so  different  as  to  stamp  upon  animal  and  vegetable  life 
features  of  its  own.  The  vegetation  assumes  a  tropical  charac- 
ter, and  the  margin  of  the  Rio  (Irande,  near  its  mouth,  which 
is  exi)osed  to  overflow,  abounds  in  reed,  cane-brake,  palmetto, 
willow,  and  water-plants.    That  which,  perhaps,  creates  as  much 

*  On  the  Pacific  coast,  running  through  16'  of  latitude'  (from  32°  to  48"),  there 
is  only  a  variation  of  13^  of  mean  annual  tomporaturo. 


m 


CLIMATIC  BOUNDARY  OF  THE   ITiITED   STATES. 


117 


fo 


^ro 


as  any  other  one  cause  the  difference  in  its  botanical  and  zoolo- 
gical productions,  is  the  liygrouietric  state  of  the  atmosphere." 

Thus  it  may  be  perceived  that  the  United  States  possesses  a 
singular  and  marked  di mafic  boundary,  both  on  the  North  and 
on  the  South,  although  defined  by  no  mountain  ranges ;  giving 
to  the  Union  nearly  all  of  the  temperato  and  sub-tropical  zones 
on  the  Continent  of  North  An;erica,  without  any,  or  little,  of  the 
enervating  influence  of  a  purely  tropical  climate. 

A  portion  of  Canada,  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia  are 
included  in  the  above  favorable  Temperate  Zone ;  also,  the 
southern  part  of  British  America  lying  Avest  of  the  head  of  Lake 
Superior. 

Population,  Health,  and  Agriciiltural  Products. 

The  Area  of  the  United  States  may  be  divided  into  four  gi'eat 
Climatic  Divisions,  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  most  healthy  region  is  the  Northern  Division,  embrac- 
ing the  States  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Northern 
New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Dacota,  Montana, 
Idaho,  and  Washington  Territory,  lying  mostly  between  the 
43d  and  49th  parallels  of  north  latitude.  O.OC)  per  cent.,  or 
1  in  110  dying  annually  in  the  above  States  and  Territories. 
This  extensive  region,  embracing  825,000  square  miles  of  tem- 
tory,  has  three  or  four  months  of  cold  winter  weather,  with  de- 
lightful summers  ;  contaiuing  only  five  inhabitants  to  the  square 
mile.  It  produces,  wheat,  oats,  hay,  potatoes,  and  other  vege- 
tables in  great  abundance.  On  the  northern  liujit,  the  mean 
annual  temperature  varies  from  37^  to  44°  Fahr.,  rising  to  47° 
on  the  southern  linut. 

2.  The  Middle  Division,  lying  mostlj^  between  the  89tli  and 
43d  parallels  (the  most  favored  zone),  comprises  the  States  of 
Massachusets,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
Southern  Idaho,  and  Oregon,  having  an  area  of  453,000  square 
mUes,  and  containing  thirty  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile. 
The  mean  annual  temperature  varies  from  47°  to  53°  Fahr. ;  it 
being  the  centre  of  the  Temperate  Zone  ;  1.18  per  cent.,  or  1  in 
03  dying  annually.  It  produces  all  the  cereals,  grasses,  and 
fruit  of  different  kinds,  suitable  for  the  sustenance  of  man  and 


n 


■i 


118 


IXFLUENCE   OF  CUILVTE. 


I 


beast.  About  one-half  of  the  entire  product  of  wheat,  Indian 
com,  and  oats,  and  more  than  half  the  hay,  butter,  and  cheese 
being  raised  in  this  fertile  region,  according  to  the  Census  of 
1860,  Avhile  nearly  half  the  poi)ulation  of  the  Union  is  found 
within  the  same  belt  of  territoiy,  extending  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

3.  The  Division  lying  between  the  3Gth  and  40th  parallels  of 
latitude,  embracing  the  Border  States,  including  Delaware, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Kentuck}',  Tennessee,  Mis- 
souri, Kansas,  (.olorado,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  Northern  Cali- 
fornia, forming  an  area  of  (]7G,000  square  miles.  It  contains  nine 
inhabitants  to  the  square  mile.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
varies  from  50'^  to  GO^  Fahr.,  being  greatly  affected  by  altitude 
in  different  sections  ;  1.30  per  cent.,  or  1  in  79  d^'ing  annually. 
Although  rich  in  agi'icultural  and  mineral  productions,  and  with 
a  genial  clnnate,  this  section  of  the  Union  has  not  increased  as 
rapidly  in  population  and  wealth  as  the  more;  northern  divisions. 
It  produces  wheat,  Indian  corn,  tobacco,  and  hemp,  and  is  also 
favorable  for  grapes  and  other  kinds  of  fruit. 

4.  The  Southern  Division,  lying  between  the  24th  and  3Gth 
parallels  of  latitude,  includes  the  States  of  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Ar- 
kansas, Louisiana,  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Southern 
California.  The  mean  annual  temperature  varies  from  GO  ^  to 
77^  Fahrenheit.  It  embraces  an  area  of  1,091,000  square 
miles,  being  the  largest  division ;  containing  six  inhabitants  to 
to  the  square  mile ;  1.48  per  cent.,  or  1  in  G9  dying  annually. 
Here  is  produced  cotton,  rice,  sugar,  and  Indian  corn  in  great 
quantities ;  being  for  the  most  part  a  sub-tropical  climate,  where 
snow  or  ice  are  seldom  to  be  found,  and  is  subject  to  malignant 
fevers  of  different  kinds. 

Total  Area,  Population,  &c.,  of  the  United  States — 1860. 


Divisious.            Moan  Temp. 

No.  to 

"  Fahr. 

Sq.  Milos. 

Population. 

Sq.  Mile 

Northern,       .        .  37  to  47 

8-25,190 

4,27G,47G 

5 

Middle,  .        .        .  47  to  53 

453,358 

14,189,349 

30 

Border  or  Central,    50  to  GO 

G7(;,70G 

6,208,583 

9 

Southern,       .        .  GO  to  7G 

1,091,413 

G,G84,349 

6 

3,04G,GG7      31,358,757*      12^ 

*  Of  whom  iu  1860,  o,9o0,700  vcie  Slaves  of  African  descent. 


HABITS  AND  CH.VRACTEB. 


119 


M 


ile. 


Habits  and  Character,  as  Influeuced  by  Climate. 

The  habits  and  character  of  the  people  inhabiting  these  dif- 
ferent sections  are  more  or  less  influenced  by  rlimatc — thus  the 
inhabitants  of  the  New  England  States,  with  a  temperate,  cool 
climate,  arc  found  to  be  generally  intelligent,  industrious,  hu- 
mane, and  frugal — hving  m  comfortable  houses,  encouraging 
ediication,  religion,  the  arts,  and  all  the  helps  which  go  to  ame- 
liorate and  advance  the  human  race.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
all  the  Northern  and  Northwestern  States,  where  an  agricultural 
community  predominates.  Hero  ship-building  and  manufac- 
tures, as  well  as  agricultural  piirsuits  of  different  kinds,  are 
carried  on  very  extensively. 

The  middle  belt,  luuing  a  mean  annual  temperature  from  4'P 
to  53  -  Fahr.,  is  crowded  with  inhabitants,  and  fuU  of  entoqDrise — 
where  the  arts,  commerce,  institutions  of  learning  and  agricul- 
tural pursuits  are  alike  encouraged.  Here  are  the  gi'cat  cities 
and  marts  of  trade — where  are  found  steam-ships  and  railroads 
in  rapid  motion,  communicating  in  a  measure  the  same  impetus 
to  its  citizens.  Common  schools,  academies,  colleges,  scientific, 
l^enevolent  and  rehgious  institutions,  and  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments are  generally  found  to  exist.  Popublican  institutions 
here  find  firm  supporters,  while  op})ression  of  every  kind  is  dis- 
couraged and  opposed  by  the  great  mass  of  the  people. 

On  this  gi'eatly  favored  belt  or  zone,  commerce  has  its  perma- 
nent and  chief  seat — here  sailing  vessels  and  steamers  are  en- 
abled to  run  during  the  entire  year  with  safety  to  passengers 
and  freight,  while  in  the  more  northern  parts  the  harbors  and 
rivers  are  generally  closed  for  three  or  four  months  by  ice — 
while  to  the  south,  during  the  summer  months,  excessive  hot 
weather  and  sickness  enfeebles  and  retards  commerce.  This 
may  be  further  illustrated  by  comparing  the  navigation  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  Eiver  and  ports  south  of  the  mouth  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  with  Boston,  Ncav  York,  and  Philadelphia.  So  on 
the  Pacific  side  of  the  continent,  nearly  all  the  commerce  being 
confined  to  ports  having  a  temperate  and  healthy  climate. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Border  or  Central  States,  includmg 
Mui'yland,  Kentucky,  Sec,  are  of  a  mixed  character  in  regard  to 
many  of  the  habits  and  traits  enumerated  above — often  resort- 
ing to  scenes  of  violence,  in  order  to  enforce  their  opinions. 


r 


'I 


Vi     t 


III 


■t  I 


II 


It' 

IK 


120 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Here,  to  a  considorablo  extent,  the  arts,  commerce,  and  mann- 
faeturcs  aro  fostered,  wliilo  ap^riculturc  is  gi'catly  encouraged. 

The  white  population  of  the  ►Southern  or  Cotton-growing 
States,  as  a  whole,  are  more  united  and  fixed  in  their  character, 
than  any  other  portion  of  the  American  people.  Climate  and 
the  institution  of  slavery  combined,  has  tended  to  render 
thom  haiighty,  domineering,  and  impatient  of  restraint — in  a 
measure  imfitting  them  for  a  republican  form  of  government. 
These  objectionable  traits  of  character,  hoAvevcr,  are  confined 
mostly  to  the  vicinity  of  the  sea-board,  while  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  Tennessee  are  found 
good  and  loyal  citizens,  firmly  maintaining  republican  prin- 
ciples. Here  is  a  sub-tropical  climate,  the  temperature  varing 
from  GO^  to  70^  Fahrenheit,  mean  annual  temperature. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Ppcilic  States  and  Territories  are  of  a 
varied  and  mixed  character,  Avhere  may  be  found  the  descendants 
of  the  Eurojiean,  Asiatic,  Mexican  and  African  races,  as  well  as 
the  native  Indian.  Their  habits  of  life  and  social  relations  differ- 
ing according  to  their  different  nationalities.  The  white  Ameri- 
can race  predominates  in  the  government  and  business  affairs 
of  the  country,  being  sincere  in  their  support  of  repul)hcan 
principles  ;  while  a  fine  cHmate,  fruitful  soil,  and  mountain 
ranges  engenders  noble  sentiments  in  the  breast  of  man. 

Further  observations  in  North  America  aro  necessary  in 
order  to  show  the  influences  operating,  in.  a  climatic  point  of 
view,  on  its  inhabitants,  now  making  rapid  progress  in  civiliza- 
tion and  liberal  forms  of  government,  giving  equal  privileges 
to  all  races  of  men ;  thus  elevating  all  classes  of  the  human 
family,  residing  on  this  continent,  to  tho  standard  designed  by 
an  oveiTuling  Providence. 


AGRICULTUHAL  PRODUCTS. 


121 


I.— Agricultural  Products  of  the  United  States— 1860, 

Giving  tbo  Ark\  of  tlic  States  and  Teuritokies. 

1.  NoKTiiKiiN  Division, 

Having  a  Jlcan  Annual  Temperature  between  40"  and  47'  Fahrcnlieit. 


States,  &c. 

Aron, 
Sq.  Miles. 

85,000 

!),2H0 

10,212 

10,000 

5(5.243 

5:5.924 

83,5:51 

230,000 

1(50,000 

100,000 

71,000 

Whnnt, 
lliislula. 

233,870 

2:58,905 

4:57.0:57 

2,89:5,701 

8,;s:so,:50s 

15,057,458 

2,180,99:5 

945 

80,219 

Inillnn  Corn, 
liiishuls. 

I'atihcls. 

2,988,039 
1,:529.2:53 
3.(5:50,2(57 

11.725,044 
4,0;5(i,98() 

11,059,2(50 

2,170,002 

2,540 

134,334 

I'otntoca, 
lliiMlield. 

G,;570,052 
4,1:57,704 
5,254,121 
8,818,:507 
5,;500,7;S7 
3,820,705 
2,500,277 
9,489 

103,012 

irujr, 

T0118. 

Maino 

New  1  (ampshirc, . 

Verm,  at 

Nth'rn  New  York 

Miclii^an 

^Vi8consin 

Minnesota, 

Dakota  Ten, 

Montana  Ter 

LlalioTer 

\^'abllinc;tou  Ter., 

1,540,071 
1,414,028 
1,525,411 
0,(587,01(5 
12,444,(57(5 
7,517,;50O 
2,941,952 
20,209 

4,712 

975,803 
042,741 
940.178 
1,188,2(54 
7(58,250 
855,037 
179,482 
855 

4,580 

Total, 

825,190 

30,071,502 

34,102,035 

3r,082,599!30,407,004 

5,555,190 

2.  Middle  Division. 

Having  a  Mean  Annual  Temperature  bi'twccn  47'  and  53"  Falir. 


Massachusetts,. 
Itliodo  Island,.. 
Connecticut.,  . . 
Sth'rn  New  York 
New  Jersey,. . . 
Pennsvlvania, . 

(3hio,." 

Indiana, 

Illinois 

[owa 

Nebraslia  Ter.,. 
Oregon 


7,800 

1,300 

4,750 

30,000 

8,;520 

47,000 

30.904 

33,809 

55,400 

55,000 

79,000 

100,000 


119,783 

1,131 

52,401 

5,787,4041 

1,70:5,218 

13,04->,1(55 

15,119,047 

10,848,207 

2:5,837,02:5 

8,449,403 

147.807 

820,770 


2,157,003 

401,497 

2.059,835 

13.374.0:5:5 

9.72:5.3:50 

28,190,821 

73.54:M90 

71,588,919 

115,174,777 

42,410.080, 

1,482,080 

70,122 


1,180,075 

244,453; 

1,522,218 

23,450,090 

4,.5:SO,i:52' 

27,:587,147 

15,409.2:54 

5.317,831 

15.220.029 

5,887,045 

74,502 

885,073 


ZL\ 


3,202.51  < 

54:5,855 

1,8:55,8,58 

17,030,010 

5.200,522 

11,090,154 

8,999,540 

4,1(55,103 

5,840,544 

2,85H.082 

1(52,350 

303.054 


Total,. 


005,331 

82,722 

502,425 

2.37(5.529 

508,720 

2,245.413 

1,504,503 

022,420 

1.774,554 

813,173 

24,458 

27,086 


Having  a 

Delaware, 

Maryland, 

Dis.  of  Columbia, 

Virginia, \_ 

West  Virginia, ) 

Kentucky 

Tennessee, 

Missouri, 

Kansas 

Colorado  Ter.,. . . 

Utah  Ter., 

Nevada 

Nth'rn  California, 

Total, 


I453,358,85,994,485i360,168,279|101,118,029,02,450,807  11,209,245 

3.  Border  Southern  States. 

Moan  Annual  Temperature  between  53'  and  00'  Fahr. 


2,120 

11,124 

00 

37,352 


912.941 

0,103,480 

12,700 

2l:000  l-^-130,977 

37,080j  7,394,809 

5,459,208 

4,227,580 

194,173 


45,000 
05,000 
83,000 
101,000 
121,000 
90,000 
50,:333 


384,892 

3,031 

1.970,150 


070,700  39,800,073 


3,892,337 

13,444,922 

80,840 

38,319,999 

04,013,033 

52,089,920 

72,892,157 

6,150,727 

90,482 

4(50 

170,230 


J5 1,1 75,719 


1,040,910  520,144 

3,959,298  1,501,109 

29,548i  37,299 

10,180,720  4,253,215 

4,017,029^  2,814,088 

2,207.814;  3.780,077 

3,080,870:  3,325,95'> 


88,325 

63,211 

1,082 

347,008! 


306,300 

141.001 

5.880 

607.923 


20,288,475:10,359,054  1,509,030 


30,973 

191,744 

3.180 

445,133 

158,470 

143,499 

401.070 

50,233 

19,235 
2  213 

loT,'884 


:'l 


122 


INFLUENCE  OF  CUMATE. 


hi 


1 1 


4.  SouTiiEiiN  Division. 

Having  a  Mean  Annual  Tomperaturo  between  60°  and  70^  Fahr. 


States,  iSco. 


North  Carolina,.. 
South  Carolinp... 

(Jcorpia, 

Florida, 

Alabama 

Mississippi, 

Arlfansas 

Louisiana, 

Texas 

Indian  Territory, 
N.  Mexico  Tor., ) 
Arizona  Ter.,. .  J 
Sth'ni  Calil'ornia, 


Total,.., 


Aroa. 
Sq.  MilUB. 


50,700 
JM.OOO 
CH,000 

r«i),3(iH 

50,722 
47,150 
52,19.s 
41,:14() 

274,ir)(! 
70,000 

110,000 

1  a  1,000 

112,0(j'7 


Wlicat, 

ItllBllclH. 


4,74i{,70(]l 

1,2S5,0;!I| 

2,544,!)  i;j 

2,H(Wi 

1,218,444 

5M7,!)25 

957,(501 

;{2,20H 

1,478,345 

i 

j-  434,309| 

2,952,!U4 


Iiulinn  (!i>rn, 
IIiihIiuIh. 


30,078,504 
15,005,000 
30,77(i,29;{ 
2,834,391 
33,220,282 
2!),057,«82 
17,823,588 
l(i,853,745 
10,500,702 

709,304 
340,472 


OfttH, 
lilltlllclS. 


2,781,800 

930,974 

1,231,817 

40,899 

082,179 

221.235 

475,208 

89,377 

985,889 


095,338 


I'otatocs, 
UuhIiuId. 


0,970,004 
4,342,723 
6,813,330 
1,148,525 
5,931,503 
4,978,193 
1,984,550 
2.:!55,030 
2,020,794 

5,403 
1,335,847 


.  1 ,091,413  10,338,204  193,200,029  8,154,082  37,885,708 


liar. 
Tom. 


181,305 
87,587 
40,448 
11.478 
02,211 
32.901 
9,350 
52,721 
11,805 

1,113 
203,771 


700,810 


Recapitulation,  by  Climatic  Divisions. 


Divisions. 


Wlicat, 
liuslu'ls. 


Northern  Division, 

Middle  Division i 

Border  South'n  States, 
Southern  Division,,. . . 

Grand  Total, 


Indian  Corn, 
Uushels. 


30,071,552  34.102,035 
85,994,485  300,108,279 
39,800,073;251, 175,719 
10,238,204  193,200,029 


Oats. 
BuhIicIh. 


37,082,599 
101.118.029 

20.288.475 
8.154,082 


•Potatoes, 
liushuls. 


30.407,004 
02.450,807 
10.359,054 

37,885,708 


Hay, 
Tons. 


5,555,190 

11,209,245 

1,509,039 

700,810 


172,104,924'838,713,003j  172,013.185  153,109,293|19,094,l 


*  42,095,020  were  sweet  potatoes. 
II. — Agricultural  Product.^  of  the  United  States— 1860. 

Also,  the  Average  Meau  Annual  Temperature  of  tlie  Several  States  and 


Territories. 

1.  Northern  Diyision. 


States,  &o. 


Maine, 

New  IIami)3hiro,.. . 

Vermont. 

Nth'rn  New  York, 

Michigan, 

Wisconsin., 

Minnesota, 

Dakota  Territory,.. 
Montana  Ter.,.. . , 

Idaho  Ter 

Washington  Ter.,.. 

Totpl 


Yearly 

Temp. 

0  Fahr. 

37  to  40 

40  to  40 

42  to  47 

44  to  47 

40  to  49 

40  to  47 

138  to  46 

]38  to  4S 

;i8  to  48 

40  to  50 

f44  to  52 

i 

Butter, 
Lbs. 


11,687,781 

0,956,704 

15,900.359 

34,097,280 

15,503,482 

13,011,328 

2,957,073 

2,170 


153,092 


Cheese, 
Lbs. 


1,799,862 
2,232,092 
8.215.030 
10,548.289 
1,041,897 
1,104,300 
199,314 


12,140 


Tobacco, 
Lbs. 


1,583 

18,581 

12,215 

1,921,537 

121,099 

87.340 

38,938 

10 


10 


■Wool, 
Lbs. 


1,495,000 
1,100,222 
3,118,950 
3,151,491 
3,960,888 
1,011,933 
20,388 


19,819 


100,870.729i  31 ,752,930  i3,201 ,343;  13,938,751 


Flax, 
Lbs. 


2,997 
1.347 
7,007 
SOli.OOS 
4,128 
21,044 
1,983 


515,114 


AOKIOUIiTURAL  PRODUCl'S. 


123 


2.  Middle  Dimsion. 


Utatks,  &0. 


Ma8Eac]iu8ett<«,. . . 
Hhixlo  Island,.. . . 
Conuucticut.  . . . 
Sth'rn  Now  York, 

Nt;w  Jnrsoy 

I'eiinaylvaiiia, . . . 

Oliio,." 

ludiuna, 

Illinois 

Iowa 

Nebraska  Tor.,..  • 
Orogou 


Total, 


Yoorly 
Temp. 

°  Kiihr. 
45  to  oO 
48  to  oO 
4(1  to  50 

47  t„  .Tl 

48  to  ry.i 
4(i  to  5:{ 

47  to  .'54 

48  to  54 

47  to  54 
4(J  to  5:> 
4(J  to  50 

48  to  54 


iiuiter, 
Lba. 


8,297,1)30 

1,021,707 

7,020,013 

09,000,000 

10,714,447 

58,0:35,511 

48,54:i,l(!2 

18,:i0(i,(i51 

28,052,551 

ll,9.5:!,(l«(i 

;!42,541 

1,000,157 


Clipcse, 
Lbs. 


5,294,090 

181,511 

3.898,411 

32,000,000 

182,172 

2,50S,55() 

21,018,893 

005,795 

1,848.557 

918,035 

12,342 

105,379 


Tobftcoo, 
Lbs. 


3;J33.198 

0,705 

0,000,133 

3,843,045 

149,485 

3,181,580 

25.092,581 

7.993,378 

0,885,202 

303.108 

3,030 

0,405 


Wool, 
Lbs. 


877,207 

90.099 

335,890 

0,302,983 

349,250 

4,752,522 

10,008,927 

2,552,318 

1,989,507 

00).8.58 

3.oU2 

219,012 


riax, 
Lbs. 


0,105 

1,187 

1,012.017 

4H.051 

312,308 

8H2,423 

97,119 

48,235 

30,230 

163 


J00,450,080l09,174,343  50,080,581  !28,342,701  2,432,553 


3.  Border  and  Western  States. 


Dolawaro, ]53 

Maryland '50 

Dis.  of  Columbia,  .55 

Virginia }    ~'^ 

WoMt  Virginia,  f 

Kontucky, 

Tennessee, 

Missouri o: 

Kansas 50 

Colorado  Ter.,...'40 

Utah  Tor '48 

Nevada 48 

Nth'rn  Calitbrnia,'48 


to  55 
to  58 
to  50 
to  00 
to  50 
to  00 
to  00 
to  00 
to  50 
to  54 
to  00 
to  58 
to  58 


Total,. 


1,430,502 
5,205,295 

18,835 

13,404,722 

11,710,000 

10,017,787 

12,704,837 

1,093,497 

310,040 

1,. 547,5 17 


57,575,047 


0,579  9,099 

8,342   38,410,905 

15,300 

280,852  123,908,312 

190,400  108,120,840 


135,570 

2.59,033 

29,045 

53,331 

071,844 


43,448,09. 
25,080,190 
20,349 


1,575 


50.201 

491,511 

100 

2,510,019 

2,329.105 

1.405,230 

2,009,778 

24,740 

74,705 

1,341  ,.554 


1,035,598,339,087,233,10,297,015  1,550,C;34: 


8,113 
14,481 

487,808 

728,234 

290,4()4 

109,837 

1335 

4,343 


4.  Southern  Division. 


North  Carolina,..  1.54  to 
South  Carolina, . .  50  to 

Georgia 58  to 

Florida 00  to 

Alabama, 00  to 


Mississippi, 
Arkansas,. . 
Louisianix, 


00  to 

50  to 

,  ,02  to 

Texas, 00  to 

Indian  Territory, '50  to 


N.  Mexico  Ter.,  { 
Arizona  Ter.,. .  J 
Bth'rn  California, 

Total 


48  to 
.50  to 
.50  to 


CO 
08 
70 
77 
70 
70 
CO 
72 
74 
01 
72 
74 
74 


4,73.5,495 
3,177,934 
5,439,705 
■  408,855 
0,028,487 
5,006,010 
4,007,550 
1,444,702 
5,850,583 

13,259 

1,547,517 


51,119 

1,543 
15,587 

5,380 
15.933 

4,427 
10,810 

0,153 
27.5,138 

37,340 

071,844 


33,853,250 
104,412 
919,318 
828,815 
232,914 
1.59,141 
989,980 
39,940 
97,914 

7,044 

1,575 


883,473 
427,103 
940,227 
59,171 
775,117 
005,959 
410,382 
290,847 
1,493,738 

492,045 

1,341,554 


37,719,8011  1,101,034  36,834,3031  7,780,315 


216.490 

344 

3,303 

111 

50 

3,821 

115 


234,234 


i: 


i 


r 


lU 


INFLUENCE  OP  CLIMAlTi:. 


Recapitulation,  byClitnatio  Divisions. 


DiVIBIONA, 

lliilter. 
I.ln. 

t'lll'I'lll', 

l.llH. 

ai.7.w,ni)0 

«i»,t74,a4;{ 

i,(i;jr...'5i)8 

1,101,034 

Tobncco, 

l.llH. 

L\20i,:M:i 

.')(t,(IH((/)Hl 

:};!»,()H7,'j;i;t 
y(i,'i;{4,;i():{ 

Wiinl, 
Mia. 

i:!,!);w.7r»l 

2M,'JI2,701 
10,'J!l7,Oir. 

7,78(i,;Jir) 

Flux, 

UlM. 

Nortlicrn  DivlHion,  . . 

Midillc  DiviHioii 

UordiT  Statcrt,  etc. . . . 
Soiitlicru  DiviHion 

10n.H70.72!t 

3(;().4r)(i,«H(t 
r.7,57r),«47 

»7,719,801 

R4r»,ii4 
!3,4:i'.;,.W!i 

l,r)5(),.JH4 
','2l,'234 

Grand  Total, 

4r,(j,o22,8r)7 

loa.dHij.itos 

4!{4,20!),4(10    ()0,2U4,78a 

4,7.12,48.1 

III.— Agricultural  Products  of  the  Sub-Tropical  States— 1060. 


Btaths,  iSco. 


North  Carolina, 

South  Civrolina, 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alahania . . . 

Mississippi 

Tonnt'ssoc  (SoutluTu), 

Arkansas, 

Lonislana, 

Texas 

Other  States, 

Total, 


C.itton, 
Dales,  4U0  lbs. 


14.5,514 

;ir):!,4i2 

701. H 10 

or),i,');5 

})8!),i)'').'5 
1,202  ,.507 
228,11(4 
307,:i!);{ 
777,7;iS 
4 ;{ 1.40:3 
.50,473 


5,318,782 


Hlri., 
Llis. 


7,.5n3.070 

11!),100,.528 

.52,.5()7,r>')3 

223,704 

41)3,40.5 

80!»,0S3 

40,372 

10,813 

0,331,2.57 

20,031 

24,134 


187,107,032 


Cimn  Piifriir, 
llugsliuuUii. 


88 

198 

1,107 

1 ,001) 

17.5 

500 

3 

403 

321,720 

5,01)1) 


*230,983 


MiiliiRseii, 

iiullullH, 


12,494 

540,749 

430,357 

85,115 

10,010 

2,S30 

22,305 

13,43!),773 

408,358 


14,963,090 


*  330,982,000  pounds  cano  sugar;  maple  sugar,  40,120,083   pounds,  mostly 
raised  iu  the  Middle  and  Northern  States. 


m 


IV. — Comparative  Agricultural  Statistics  of  the  United  States, 

1850—1860. 


I'BODCCTS,  &0. 


Inhabitants,  Number, 
Wheat,. . . .  Bushels, 
Indian  Corn,       " 

Oats 

Potatoes,  . .         " 

Hay Tons, 

Butter, Lbs. 

Cheese " 

Tobacco, " 

Wool, " 

Cotton, " 

Rice " 

Sugar " 

Wine, Gallons, 


QuanMties. 


1850. 

23,191,870 
100,485,944 
.592.141,230 
146,.584,17» 
104,037,502 

13,838,042 
312,948,915 
105,535,.599 
199,752,740 

52,518,143 

978,317,200 

215,312.710 

230,814,000 

231,319 


1800. 

31,443,232 
173,104,934 
838,792,740 
172,043,185 
153,109,293 

1!),083,890 
4.59,081,372 
10;},003,927 
434,209,401 

00,204,913 

3,127,512,800 

187,107,032 

230,982,000 

1,027,242 


Proportion  to 

Each  III 

militant. 

1850. 

1860. 

4.33 

5.50 

2.5. 

27. 

6.34 

5. 

13. 

1.5. 

4.50 

3.50 

8..50 

14. 

2.25 

o 

42..50 

70. 

9.25 

0. 

12. 

9. 

Increase  nnd 
Decrease. 


In.   8.251,440 

"   72.018,980 

"  250,051,510 

"   2(;,05!),(K)0 

"   49,071,731 

5,245,254 

"  140,733,457 

De.   1,871,073 

In.  234,440,715 

7,740,770 

"  1,1 41).  195,000 

Do.  28,145,078 

5,832,000 

In.   1,405,993 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


125 


States  in  the  Order  of  their  Indian  Corn  Product  in  1860. 

States.  Uuishols. 

18.  South  Carolina,  IS.OOH.OOO 


Statks.  Bualiols. 

1.  Illinois,  .        .  115,174,777 

2.  Oliio,      .        .  73,54;},1<H) 

3.  Missouri,        .  72,802, laT 

4.  luJiana,          .  71,588,!)H) 

5.  Kentucky,       .  i\i,()-iH,{m 
().  Tennessee,      .  .52,OS!),92r. 

7.  Iowa,      .         .  42,41(),(i8() 

8.  Yir^'inia,         .  ;iH,:n9,<)<)<) 
\).  Ala))anm,        .  33,22(1,282 

10.  (Jeor^aa,         .  30,77(;,2!I3 

11.  North  C!ar()lina,  3(),()78,5()4 

12.  Missis.-.^|)pi,    .  20,()57,()82 

13.  Penusyhania,  28,10(),821 

14.  New  loik,      .  20,0(il,040 

15.  Arkansas,  .  17,823,588 
IG.  Louisiana,  .  1(),853,745 
17.  Texas,    .  _      .  lf),500,702 

Seven  Territories, 


15).  Maryland, 

20.  Miehif,mn, 

21.  N(!w  Jersey,  . 
!?2.  Wisconshi, 
211.  Kansas, . 

l:i.  Delaware, 
25.  Minnesota,     . 
2(5.  Florida,. 

27.  Massachusetts, 

28.  Connecticut,  . 
2i).  Maine,   . 

Viu'mont, 
N.  Hampshire, 
California, 
Khode  Island, 
Orecon, . 


30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 


13,444,922 

12,444,(;7(; 

9,723,33() 

7,517,300 

(5,150,727 

3,820,337 

2,041,952 

2,834,391 

2,157,0(53 

2,059,835 

1,54(5,071 

1,525,411 

1,414,028 

510,708 

401,497 

7(5,122 

2,388,147 


Total  Bushels, 838,792,740 

Being  to  each  inhabitant  in  the  IT.  States,  27  Busliols. 
in  the  Order  of  their  "Wheat  Product  in  1860. 


States 


States. 

1.  Illinois,    . 

2.  Indiana,  . 

3.  Wisconsin^ 

4.  Ohio,  _     . 

5.  Yirginia,  . 
(5.  Pennsylvania 

7.  New  York, 

8.  Iowa, 

9.  Michigan, 

10.  Kentucky, 

11.  Maryland, 

12.  California, 

13.  Tennessee, 

14.  North  Carolina, 

15.  Missouri, 
10.  Georgia,  . 
17.  Minnesota, 

Seven  Territories, 

Total,  . 


Huslicls. 

23,837,023 

10,848,267 

15,(557,458 

15,119,047 

13,130,977 

13,042,105 

8,681,105 

8,449,403 

8,336,368 

7,394,809 

6,103,480 

5,928,470 

5,459,268 

4,743,700 

4,227,586 

2,544,913 

2,186,993 


Status. 

18.  New  Jersey, 

19.  Texas,      . 

20.  South  Carolina, 

21.  Alabama, 

22.  Arkansas, 

23.  Delaware, 

24.  Oregon,    . 

25.  Miiisissippi, 
2(5.  Yermont, 

27.  N.  Hampshire, 

28.  Maine, 

29.  Kansas,   . 

30.  Massachu.sctts, 

31.  Connecticut,     . 

32.  Louisiana, 

33.  Florida,   . 

34.  Rhode  Island, . 


J3uslicl3. 

1,703,218 

1,478,345 

1,285,631 

1,218,444 

957,601 

912,941 

820,776 

587,925 

437,037 

238,965 

233,87(5 

194,173 

119,783 

52,401 

32,208 

2,80S 

1,131 

1,070,623 


173,104,924 


Being  to  each  inhabitant  in  the  U.  States,  5.^  bushels. 


l^h 


lis' 


126 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMAIE. 

Total  Deaths  in  the  United  States— 1360. 

Showing  tho  Number  Dying  from  Consumption  and.  Fevers. 


States,  &0. 

Consump- 

Fevers. 

Total. 

tion. 

Ratio. 

Ratio. 

Deaths. 

Maine, 

2,169 

29.5 

616 

8.3 

7,614 

New  Hampshire, 

1,163 

26.6 

340 

7.7 

4,469 

Vermont,  . 

779 

24.4 

253 

7.6 

3,355 

Massachiisets,   . 

4,845 

24.0 

965 

4.6 

21,304 

Rhode  Island,    . 

567 

23.4 

81 

3.4 

2,479 

Connecticut, 

1,269 
and 

21.7 

341 

5.8 

6,  39 

Total,  New  Engl 

States, 

.        10,792 

24.9 

2,596 

6.2 

45,361 

New  York, 

8,199 

18.4 

1,663 

3.7 

46,941 

New  Jersey, 

1,350 

17.5 

314 

4.3 

7,525 

Penrsylvania,    . 

5,011 

17.6 

1,932 

5.0 

30,241 

Delaware,  . 

201 

18.0 

77 

6.0 

1,246 

Maryland, . 

1,197 

17.2 

393 

5.9 

7,374 

District  of  Columbi 

a,            255 

22.0 
18.4 

60 

5.1 
5.0 

1,285 

Total,  Middle  Sit 

ites,    16,213 

4,439 

94,612 

Virginia,    . 

2,109 

11.3 

1,453 

7.7 

22,474 

North  Carolina, 

761 

7.2 

1,503 

14.2 

12,617 

South  Carohna, 

390 

4.5 

1,120 

13.9 

9,749 

Georgia,     . 

491 

4.5 

1,455 

13.4 

12,816 

Florida, 

97 

6.2 

235 

9.5 

1,769 

Alabama,  . 

596 

5.3 

1,466 

13.1 

12,760 

Mississippi, 

554 

5.1 

1,710 

15.9 

12,214 

Louisiana, 

843 

7.5 
6.4 

1,384 

13.6 
12.6 

12,324 

Total,  Southerns 

tates,   5,851 

10,326 

96,723 

Texas, 

420 

5.1 

1,346 

21.7 

9,377 

Arkansas,  . 

329 

4.2 

1,510 

19.5 

8,856 

Tennessee, 

1,440 

10.9 

1,745 

13.2 

15,156 

Kentucky, . 

1,742 

14.2 

1,669 

13.7 

16,467 

Missouri,    . 

1,302 

8.3 

2,462 

15.8 

17,654 

Kansas, 

117 

8.0 

373 

25.7 

1,567 

Total,  Southwest 

ern 

States, 

6,350 

8.4 

9,105 

18.2 

69,077 

DEATHS  IN  THE  UNIITSD  STATES. 


127 


Total  Deaths  in  the  United  States,  &c.,  continued. 


States,  &c. 

Consump- 

Fevers. 

Total 

tion. 

Ratio. 

Ratio. 

Deaths. 

Ohio, 

3,495 

14.1 

1,650 

6.6 

24,726 

Indiana,     . 

1,805 

12.8 

1,740 

12.6 

15,326 

nUinois,     . 

1,948 

10.9 

2,339 

13.1 

19,300 

Iowa, 

784 

11.1 

878 

13.2 

7,^59 

Nebraska,  Ter.,  . 

28 

8.2 
11.4 

66 

19.4 
13.0 

381 

Total,  Western  States,    8,060 

6,679 

66,992 

Michigan,  . 

1,187 

17.0 

636 

9.1 

7,401 

Wisconsin, 

910 

13.8 

484 

7.3 

7,141 

Minnesota, 

151 

15.2 

83 

8.3 

1,109 

Total  Northwestei 

n 

States, 

2,248 

15.0 

1,203 

8.2 

15,651 

New  Mexico, 

34 

3.4 

207 

20.7 

1,305 

Utah, 

18 

5.5 

16 

4.9 

374 

California, 

524 

15.1 

301 

8.7 

3,705 

Oregon, 

30 

11.1 

26 

9.6 

300 

Washington  Ter., 

8 

16.0 
10.2 

8.8 

50 

Total  Pacific  States,          614 

550 

5,734 

RECAPITULATION. 

Eastern  States, . 

10,792 

24.9 

2,596 

6.2 

45,361 

Middle  States,  . 

16,213 

18.4 

4,439 

5.0 

94,612 

Southern  States, 

5,851 

6.4 

10,320 

12.6 

96,723 

Southwestern  States, 

5,350 

8.4 

9,105 

18.2 

69,077 

Western  States, 

8,060 

11.4 

6,679 

13.0 

66,992 

Northwestern  States, 

2,248 

15.0 

1,203 

8.2 

15,651 

Pacific  States,   . 

614 

10.2 

550 
35,898 

8.8 

5,734 

Grand  Total, . 

49,118 

394,150 

i 


In  1860,  the  deaths  by  Consumption  were  13.79  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  number  of  deaths,  and  by  Fevers,  9.79  per  cent. ;  mak- 
ing 23.58  per  cent,  of  deaths  caused  by  the  above  diseases. 

Note. — Northern  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Lake  Superior,  is  one  of  the  healthiest  reerions  in  the  United  States. 


if 


w 


m  i 
11  ■ 

li 
I 
if 


it 


128  INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Raiu    n  the  United  States. 

[Kxtract  from  "  Agriculture  nnd  t'liniatc  of  North  America,"  by  K.  Uuasr.i-U] 

"  In  consequence  of  the  Continent  of  North  America  being  pow- 
orfully  lieated  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  summer,  the  southerly 
winds  are  more  prevalent  during  that  season.  This  fact  is  well 
GS<»ablished  by  the  researches  of  Professor  Coffin.  The  United 
States  and  Canada  thus  owe  their  fertility  to  the  al)normal 
course  of  the  tropical  winds.  These  aerial  carrents,  hot  and 
moist  from  the  Equatorial  Zone,  after  crossing  the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  tlcnv  northward  in  sunnner  over  the  ccmti- 
neut  almost  Avitli  the  regularity  of  a  monsoon.  Indeed,  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  British  Possessions  in  America,  the 
country  is  liberally  watered  by  summer  rauis.  There  is  no 
break  about  latitude  80  ^  in  this  vast  rainy  region.  Unlike  the 
climate  of  corresponding  latitudes  in  Europe  and  Africa,  the 
West  India  Islands  have  their  hurricanes  and  their  luxuiiant 
cane-fields  ;  the  Mississip])i  Valley,  its  summer  tornadoes  and  its 
cotton  and  maize  fields.  The  following  observations  even  show 
that  latitude  30  \  along  the  Gulf  coast,  is  the  most  rainy  on  tho 
Atlantic  side  of  the  American  Continent : — 

falIj  of  rain  in  different  localities. 


Stations,  &c. 

Lat. 

Kair 

I  in  Inches. 

c 

( 

SpriniT. 

Sum. 

Autuuin 

Win. 

Year. 

New  Orleans,  Lou. 

80 

00 

11.21) 

17.28 

9.62 

12.71 

50.90 

Mobile,  Ala. 

80 

42 

12.(]0 

19.80 

12.10 

10.90 

(50.90 

Pensacola,  Flor., 

80 

18 

12.8G 

18.09 

38.71 

11.72 

5G.98 

Havann;  h,  Geo.,   . 

3-2 

4 

11.90 

28.00 

9.70 

8.40 

53.00 

Wilmington,  N.  C, 

84 

20 

(5.88 

15.52 

1G.32 

7.84 

4(5.00 

Norfolk,  Va., 

8() 

50 

9.77 

15.08 

lO.lG 

10.17 

45.18 

Washington,  D.  C. 

88 

58 

10.45 

10.48 

10.15 

10.07 

41.20 

Cincinnati,  Ohio, 

8i) 

(5 

11.18 

9.80 

8.50 

18.40 

42.88 

Citv  of  New  York, 

40 

42 

31.55 

11.38 

10.80 

9.G3 

48.28 

Buiralo,  N.  Y.,      . 

42 

58 

8.50 

9.28 

13.54 

7.58 

38.80 

Boston,  Mass., 

42 

21 

8.00 

8.42 

9.27 

9.01 

85.30 

Plattsl)urgh,  N.  Y. 

44 

41 

8.3(5 

10.08 

10.05 

4.95 

38.39 

Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

48 

4 

9.03 

9.21 

8.95 

8.88 

85.57 

Eastport,  Me., 

44 

54 

8.88 

10.05 

9.85 

lO.Gl 

89.39 

Fort  Kent.,  Me.,  . 

47 

15 

5.4G 

11.(55 

9.(54 

9.71 

8G.4G 

St.  Paul,  Mm.,     . 

44 

52 

G.Gl 

10.92 

G.OO 

2.00 

25.44 

*'  The  summer  raiu  i 

usually  falls 

in  thunder  si 

lowers 

duiing 

sultry  weather.  The  autumn  rains  are  sometimes  protracted  for 
two  or  three  days.  The  winter  rains  and  snows  are  accom])a- 
uied  with  violent  winds  and  gi'cat  fluctuations  in  the  barometer. 


1:1 


l3ES3S3B«ftB(8!Wr»«HB»: 


CHANQES  IN  THE  CLIMATE  OF  THE  UNITED   STATEkS. 


129 


The  winter  storms  sweep  the  whole  continent  ea,st  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  At  all  seasons  the  raius  and  snows  are  preeoded 
by  southerly  winds  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  But  in  winter 
these  warm  and  moist  Avinds  are  invariably  succeeded  by  cold 
winds  from  the  west,  which  render  the  fluctuations  in  the  teni- 
])erature  of  the  most  extreme  character.  I  think  that  the  ]nin- 
cipai  phenomena  of  the  American  storms  can  be  accounted  for 
by  the  action  of  these  two  winds — the  sovth  and  the  iccit.  The 
cold  wind  in  Canada  and  the  Northern  States  is  usually  from, 
the  north  of  west ;  in  tlie  latitude  of  Washinf:;ton  from  the  west, 
and  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  oft":i  due  nortli.  The  manner  in 
which  the  two  winds — the  soutu  and  the  Avest — of  the  most  op- 
posite characters,  alternately  displace  each  other,  involves  the 
whole  t/icorj/  of  North  Aincrivan  slorinf,:" 

It  appears  on  the  Continent  of  North  Amcnca,  that  about 
the  same  diminution  of  rain  occurs,  from  south  to  north,  as  is 
found  to  exist  on  tlie  Eastern  Continent.  The  annual  quantity 
falUng  at  Eome,  north  latitude,  41"  53',  is  thii*ty-nine  inches ;  at 
London,  north  latitude,  51°  30',  twcntj'-four  inches  ;  at  St. 
Petersburg,  north  latitude,  60°,  sixteen  inches. 

Changes  in  the  Climate  of  the  United  States. 

"  In  the  United  States,"  says  Professor  Lovering,  "and  per- 
haps in  the  whole  of  Noi-th  America,  it  has  been  obserA'ed  that 
the  temperature  of  January  and  July,  have  a])proached  each 
other,  the  extremes  not  beiug  so  gi'eat,  since  European  settle- 
ments began.  The  rivci-;  do  not  freeze  so  thick,  or  so  long,  as 
they  once  did.  "When  Philadelphia  was  first  settled,  the  Dela- 
ware was  covered  with  ice  as  soon  as  the  1st  of  November. 
Now  it  is  rarely  frozen  at  all.  Hudson  Iliver  is  open  a  month 
longer  in  the  wmter  than  formerly,  now  usually  closing  the  latter 
part  of  December,  and  opening  al)out  the  middle  of  March,  be- 
mg  an  average  of  about  three  months. 

"  AVhen  New  England  was  first  settled,  the  winters  set  in  reg- 
ularh',  and  C(mtinuedfor  tliree  or  four  months,  without  interiii])- 
tion,  and  broke  up  at  nearly  the  same  time,  as  is  now  the  case 
in  Canada.  The  snow  is  diminished,  and  the  period  of  sleigli- 
ing  is  Iv.sa.  The  changes  of  the  se.'.sons  are  all  of  th<>m  less  sud- 
den and  uniform.  It  is  also  allirnicd  that  tlu're  lias  been  a  great 
alteration  in  tlie  prevalent  winds.  The  force  of  the  west  Avinds 
has  a})ated,  while  the  ea.st  winds  are  increasing  in  frequency 
and  extent.  A  century  ago,  they  did  not  penetrate  more  than 
thirty  or  forty  miles  into  the  country  ;  now  they  reach  eighty 
miles  from  the  sea-shore  or  upwards. 


130 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


li 


Notwithstandinpf  these  alleged  facts,  Dr.  Enoch  Hale  gives 
the  result  of  his  enrcfiil  discussion  of  the  Meterological  Journal 
of  Dr.  Holyoke,  kept  at  Salem,  from  178G  to  1821,  as  follows  : 
It  thus  ai^pears  that  this  journal  does  not  s\ipport  the  opinion 
that  there  has  been  a  progressive  uicrease  of  the  temperature 
of  our  cUmate  iii  nyanl  to  t/ic  wJiole  year.  If  we  comi)are  the 
spring  months  of  the  different  years,  we  find  the  results  nearly 
the  same,  both  in  respect  to  the  whole  spring,  and  to  tlie 
months  of  March  and  April ;  thus  showing  tliat  the  opinion  is 
equally  unfounded,  which  has  been  maintained,  that  the  sjjriug 
advances  more  rapidly  in  proportion  to  the  temperature  of  the 
whole  3'ear,  than  it  did  formerly.  The  mean  tcmi)erature  of  the 
first  ten  years  in  48.77  Fahr.,  of  the  last  ten  years  47.85 ;  the 
highest  year  of  all  was  1793,  the  mean  annual  temperature  be- 
ing 50.9G ;  the  lowest,  1812,  the  mean  annual  temperature  being 
45.28. 

It  appears  from  the  published  observations  at  Boston,  by 
Mr.  Jon.  P.  Hall,  from  1821  to  185G,  that  the  average  tempera- 
ture of  the  whole  year,  during  the  period  of  thirty-six  years, 
was  48.66  Fahr.  The  Avarmest  year  was  1828,  the  temperature 
beiug  51.78  ;  the  coldest  year  was  1836,  the  temperature  being 
45.34  Fahr. 

As  the  observations  of  Mr.  Hall  are  not  sti'ictly  comparable 
with  those  of  Dr.  Holyoke,  becaiise  the  places  were  ten  miles 
ai)art,  and  the  hours  and  instruments  also  different,  we  may 
compare  the  observations  of  Mr.  Hall  with  each  other ;  and  we 
find  the  mean  temperature  for  the  first  ])criod  of  nine  years 
49.36 ;  for  the  second,  47.76  ;  for  the  thirtl,  49.00  ;  and  for  the 
fourth,  48.54  Fahr. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  derived  from  the  above  obser- 
vations, durmg  forty-three  years,  are  as  follows  : 

Mean  yearly  temperature  of  Boston,  48.86  Fahrenheit. 
Mean  yearly  tem})erature  of  Salem,   48.66  " 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Salem  appears  to  have  fluc- 
tuated u'rogularly  to  the  extent  of  5.68  ^ ;  and  that  of  Boston  to 
the  extent  of  6.44^  Fahr. 

The  average  annual  fall  of  snow  in  Boston  and  its  vicinity, 
during  the  past  twenty  years,  us  ascertained  by  actual  observa- 
tion, amounts  to  four  feet  three  inches. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Superior,  the  average  annual  fall  of 
snow  amounts  to  twenty-four  feet,  while  at  St.  Paiil,  Minnesota, 
the  annual  fall  is  only  two  feet,  or  two  inches  of  water,  showing 
that  the  annual  fall  of  snow  is  owing  to  local  causes  mor-^  than 
to  difference  of  latitude. 


CHANGES  IN  THE  CLIMATE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


131 


"  Dr.  Hugh  Williamson  attributes  the  change  of  climate 
which  ho  thinks  has  taken  place  in  the  United  Stttes,  at  least 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Philadelphia,  to  the  settlement  upon  the 
soil  and  its  cultivation.  When  the  settler  enters  the  new  coun- 
try, the  trees  disai)pear,  th(^  sun  strikes  down  to  the  surface, 
and  penetrates  the  upturned  soil,  the  drainage  is  perfected,  and 
evaporation  and  cokl  diminish  in  the  winter.  The  land  be- 
comes more  heated  than  the  water,  and  the  sea  breeze,  which 
before  scarcely  passed  the  edge  of  the  coast  inland,  now  makes 
farther  and  farther  inroads.  The  summers  will  bo  less  over- 
heated and  the  winters  will  not  be  so  excessively  cold  as  before 
man  began  his  cultivation." 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Philadelphia,  for  the  last 
sixty  years,  at  peiiods  of  ten  years,  are  as  follows : 


*on 

1  1800  to  1809,  average,  . 

51.80 

°  Fahr 

181C  to  1819, 

51.20 

1820  to  1829,   " 

52.70 

1830  to  1839, 

52.00 

1840  to  1849,   " 

52.70 

1850  to  1859, 

53.00 

The  coldest  year  was  181G,  beuig  a  mean  of  49^  Fahr.,  and 
the  warmest,  1858,  being  54^,  making  a  variation  of  5-^  Fahr. 


f 


■:;i 


of 

isota, 

I  wing 

than 


4 


i    1 


132 


INFI.UENCE   OF   (CLIMATE. 


I. — Meteorological  Table. 

SmOWINO    TIIK    l-Ul.NCWAI,    (ITIKS    AN!)    .MIl.ITAliV    .'TATtON.S     I.N     THE    UNITKD 
f-TATR<  HAVING  A  MI.AN  AN.NCAI,  TICMI'ICUATlIIli;  liKTVYKCN  I}?'  A  47'  KAflU. 


c 

i 

1 

V»i:i  S 

K.'.HO.NB. 

HiATIOVH,    KT<;. 

«) 

•i 

•a 

s 

1 

1           1     .:     1     -• 



1 

1 

1   1 

IV-C't.  !'•  Kiilir 

Spring. 
Antumi 

Si 

a 

5 

* 

°  Kalir. 

Kiitir. 

°Kiitir.' 

■'  Tiihr. 

I'^iiRtpnrt,  Miiiiic 

44  r)4 

(UiTiH' 

70  i  4:5.00 

10.15 

00.50  47..52 

2:5.00 

Fort  Kail-field,  Mlliill^  . . . 

4(;'.!() 

07  4!» 

41.")   :!S.10 

:!().2!i  oi..":.h!40.:50 

11.2S 

llimciK^it  BiirrutlvH, Maine. 

4(1  07 

07"1!) 

020  10..")0 

:5!i.l5 

0;!.:;:! 

4:5.15 

10.11 

I'oit  Kent, 

47"  15' 

08  ;r) 

57") :  ;!7.(M)  '•  :i5.22 

01.08 

;5)).88 

il.:}0 

I'atli. 

43' no 

<t!)  52 

20 

44..50,i41.70 

04.80 '  47.00 

21.00 

Porttiiu'l. 

4;; :«) 

70'20 

20 

45.221,42.77 

05.24 

48.10 

21.70 

I'ortsiiioiitli,  N.  II 

4:{'()4 

70  41)' 

40 

45.80,14:3.23 

0438 

lO.OO 

20.00 

Muilc.lli'Hter,        "      

42  ")!) 
4:ri:{ 

7r'2.s' 

71  2!) 

:ioo 
;{oo 

40.141 
44  ..50 1 

I 

("diicDnl,            "     

i  42'.«6 

05.40 

47.36 

22.70 

Ilniiover,            "     

4:i  42' 

72  "17' 

5;jo 

42.2!l  i 

i 

Wiii.lsor,  Vf 

4:{  :}() 

72  27' 

45  40  j 

41.80 

«o'.46 

4!»*.27 

21.:*i'7 

Hiirliiitfton,  Vt 

H'2!i' 

7:i  li' 

"  'lirio 

45.00 

42.70 

«7.!)0 

47.80 

21.00 

Newliurvport,  Muss 

42'4!)' 
42  40 

70°r.O' 

71' 08' 

'  150 

47.:?1 ' 

1.       . 

.\ii(li>ver,               "      .... 

47.40 

144.70 

08.70 

40.:'50 

20.90 

l,u\vreTi('e,              "      .... 

42"42' 

7i  li' 

i;{;j 

45.8!) 

I 

WorceHK.'r,            "      .... 

42  Ui' 
4222' 

7r48' 
72";)!' 

5;{(! 

200 

47.00 
40.70 

1 

AiiilierHt,               "      

45.66 

08.00 

48.'r6 

24.76 

WiiliamHtowii,      "      .... 

42'4:r 

7:n:i 

5);iO 

45.00 ' 

!  4;!.«0 

07.!)0 

47.!)0 

24.20 

Tioy,  N.  V 

42  4:i 

7=5  40 

50 

47.80 1 

140.10 

70.00 

50.25 

24.00 

Slllelll,     "      

4:i\r, 

7:{:iO 

000 

40.5(; ' 

45.00 

08.20 

48.41 

21.50 

I'latt.sl)urf,'li,  .\.  V 

44 '71 

7:j  2.") 

180 

44.00  '12.:)2 

(;(i.70 

10.07 

20.22 

Maloiie,              "      

44'r)0' 

74  2;'.' 

700 

4:5.10  i 

43.10 

04.1!l 

45.00 

2l.:iO 

OfjfdeiiHlmrf^li,    "      

44  4  r 

7r)';?2 

280 

4;i.50 1 

42.80 

00.84 

18.00 

22.0(5 

I'tica,                  "     

4;ro(>' 

7.-)  i:{ 

470 

io.((0  i  45.;{:5 

((7.!)4 

18.12 

25.24 

Sacket's   Ilurlxir,  N.  V... 

4:j  nr, 

70  00 

200 

45.00    42..52 

00.84 

IH.OO 

22.0(5 

O.swcffo,                        " 

4;}20' 

70'40' 

250 

4(i.44  !4:i.70 

(iO.!)2 

.50.40 

21.72 

Hocliesler,                     "      .  . 

4.}'()7' 

77  51' 

500 

47.00  '44.00 

07.()0 

18.!)0 

27.00 

lUltfiih.,                           "      .  . 

425;$' 

78  no' 

050 

40.25    12.7:5 

00.03 

47.!I2 

27.12 

Dotroit,  Midi 

42  20' 

8;j  oo' 

580 

47.25  i  4.5.8!) ,  (i7.«0 

48.07 

20.81 

I'ort  Huron,  Midi 

42  ".:!' 

82'24' 

(iOO 

47.00  |l:i.«8l  00.80 

40.00 

25.(;o 

(Jraiu!  IfapjilH,    "    

4:i(M) 
■ir,  'tv 

80  00 

81  ;i:f 

8.")2 

728 

45.05 

1 

Fort  .Macjiiiiac,  "  

41.00 

i:i8.7:{  102.00 

4:5.8.5 

20.00 

Sant   Ste.  .Marie,  Midi. . 

4(i  :iO' 

84  4:5' 

000 

40.:!7 

:57.oo  02.00 

1:5.54 

l.'^.:;o 

.Mur<|Uette,  li.  S.,       " 

4((  ;!2' 

87  41 

(;;») 

41.00 

11.20   (il. 10 

1:5.00 

17.5:5 

Clipper  liarli'r,  Ii.S.,Midi. 

47  :!(> 

88-  00' 

020 

4100    :i8.17  (i().8(» 

12.!)0 

21.7M 

<)ntona;,'<>n,         "         " 

4(i"."i2' 

81)  :!0' 

000 

40.00    10.00  01.00 

12.U(t 

17.00 

Miinitowoc,  Wis 

44  07' 
4;i  (Ci' 

87  ;i7' 

87'.")' 

(iOO 

coo 

1.").00 
40.10 

1 

Miiwaulu'c,     "    

l42.:io'i!7.:50 

.Vo'.io 

20*.'  6 

(ireen  Ihty,      "     

41  ;!()' 

88  O.T 

020 

11.50 

4:5..52  08.50 

40.00 

1!).!)2 

I'\)rt  NMruielisit^o,  NN'is. .. 

4:i  :ir 

8!)°2M' 

770 

15.00 

!  45 .50  '  08.00 

10.00 

20.00 

Fort  ('ra\vri)ni,          "    .. . 

4:{().-)' 

01 '00' 

010 

170M 

;4H.OO    72.28 

18.5:5 

21.25 

lluydcl.i.  \u  S.,          "    ... 

4(i  4r,' 

0',  00 

020 

40.00 

i  :i8.00 

02.00 

13.00 

1.5.00 

Superinr,     "              "    ... 

4(i':iH' 

!)2  0:i 

000 

41.00 

1 4!).00 

o;j.()0 

42.00 

15.00 

Fort  .MiiiriHoii.  Iowa 

4:roo 

J)2"(I0' 

700 

10.00 

1 40.0:S 

08.00 

10.13 

20.02 

l''ort  Snellinir,  Min 

4rr,;{ 

«):i  10 

820 

41.54 

45.57 

70.(54 

45.00 

10.07 

Fort  Ui<lK<;ly,     "    . . 

41  ir, 

04  48' 

4:(.H2 

44.1:5 

70.00 

44.21 

17.00 

Fort,  Kipley'       "    

4(il!» 

!)4  li) 

V.iao 

;}i).:iO 

:)y.3;j 

05.00 

12  00 

10.00 

I'eillliilKl,              "     

■WW 

07  00' 

000 

:{!).0() 

:54.:so 

70.00 

12.00 

12.00 

Fort  JJnudull,  Dakota.... 

4T0r 

0813' 

1.215 

4(i.80 

45.13 

75.40 

48.33 

18.30 

Fort  Union,          "      ... . 

mm 

104  00' 

2.000 

40.00 

titmtMJ-iUutUr'.. 


W4 


t 


PAliT  VTII. 

MILITARY  POSTS  A\l)  (MTIES  ON  THE  NORTHERN 

FRONTIER. 


Climatic  Features. 

Tnis  V)(!lt  of  t(>mp(;riitur(',  luiviii^'  an  aiinual  moan  varying 
from  37  to  47'"-'  FaliViinluit,  lies  mostly  IxtwcM^n  4:}^  and  49'^ 
north  latitudo,  but  docs  not  (extend  to  tli(;  Pacitic  Ocean 
■\vitliin  tlio  boundH  of  the  United  States,  running  northward 
into  the  IJritisli  and  llus.sian  PosseHHicms. 

Nova  Scotia,  New  lirnnswi(;k,  Canada,  and  tlie  soutliem  por- 
tion of  the  Huds(m  Vaiy  iUnn[y.iuy^^  Tenitory,  W(!st  of  Lake 
Sup(!rif)r,  also  ])osh('SH  the  same  climatic  influence,  varying 
about  10^  mean  annual  temperature.  On  the  Pacific  slope  of 
the  continent,  the  above;  range;  of  climatic  extends  from  the  49th 
to  the  57th  degree  o  north  latitude,  terminating  on  the  north 
near  Sitka,  or  New  .Archangel,  in  llussian  America. 

This  imm(ms(!  region  of  country,  ext«!nding  through  80"^  of 
longitude,  ]»ro(lu(;eH  tin;  cereals,  grasses,  and  vege^tables  of  tho 
more  hardy  kind,  sullici(!nt  to  sustain  a  dense  ])opulation. 
Wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  Ixians  and  peas  being  pro- 
duced in  great  abundance.  Tlu;  chie^f  articles  of  export  are 
lish  and  lumber,  tin;  former  aflbrding  profitable  employment  to 
a  large  amount  of  tonnage;,  and  thousands  of  seamen  of  differ- 
ent nations.  The  lumber  trade  is  extensively  and  profitably 
pursued,  both  in  the  British  Possessions  and  in  the  northern 
portion  of  the  United  States,  where;  ship-building  is  carrieel  on 
to  a  very  large  extent.  The  pine;,  the  oak  anel  the;  maple  aro 
the  me)st  valuable  trees  of  the?  fe)r(;st.  The;  traele;  in  furs  and 
mai)le  sugar  aro  alse)  important  items  e)f  home  ce)nsumption 
and  e;xpe)rt,  tho  forruer  sleiwly  elecreasing  in  amoiint,  and  the 
hitter  increasing.  The  ie-e;  cre)p  is  also  rising  into  importance, 
both  for  homo  consumptie)n  and  export ;  ne-arly  all  ])eing  col- 
lected north  of  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  50'^  Fahrenheit, 


134 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


it  I; 


i;;  • 


I'' 


where  the  thermometer  occasioually  falls  to  zero.  Tlio  streams 
are  usually  closed  by  ice  for  four  months  of  the  year,  fi'om  De- 
cember to  March,  while  more  or  less  suow  covers  the  face  of 
the  earth,  aftbrdinf^  both  warmth  aud  moisture. 

The  gi-eat  geographical  feature  of  this  regiou  is  the  Lakes  or 
"  Inland  Seas"  which  are  immense  basins,  containing  the  larg- 
est deposit  of  fresh  water  on  the  globe,  their  surplus  waters  flow- 
ing northeast  through  the  St.  Lawi-ence  River  into  the  Gulf  and 
Atlantic  Ocean ;  other  large  streams  flow  eastward  and  north- 
ward into  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  the  Hudson  Bay,  draining  alto- 
gether an  immense  section  of  country,  lying  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  mouths  of  the  principal  navigable  rivers  on 
the  Atlantic  slope  are  the  St.  John,  Penobscot,  Kennebec,  Con- 
necticut and  Hudson  Rivers,  while  many  other  streams  take 
their  rise  in  this  region,  and  flow  southward,  falling  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  or  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Military  Posts  and  Cities. 

Fort  Kent,  situated  in  the  most  northern  part  of  the  State 
of  Maine,  at  the  junction  of  the  Fish  River  with  the  St.  John's, 
in  latitude  47^  15'  north,  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  37° 
Fahr.  The  coldest  winter  mouth  (February)  had  a  mean  of 
10*^,  and  the  warmest  summer  month  (August)  had  a  mean  of 
68^  Fahr.  The  greatest  extremes  behig  from  1)0  ^  above  to  30° 
below  zero,  showing  a  variation  of  132°  Fahrenheit.  "  The  re- 
gion adjacent  to  Fort  Kent  is  probably  one  of  the  healthiest 
within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  and  though  rigorous,  the 
climate  seems  to  be  productive  of  the  most  robust  health. 
Fevers  and  other  diseases  of  a  malarious  origin  are  unknown, 
and  other  acute  diseases  aro  by  no  means  of  common  occur- 
rence. The  soil  is  a  light  loam,  which  rests  upon  a  stratum  of 
gravel  and  pebbles.  In  consequence  of  its  geological  forma- 
tion, the  drainage  of  the  land  is  excellent,  and  numerous  springs 
of  fine  water  arc  found  in  every  direction.  With  the  exception 
of  the  immediate  })anks  of  the  St.  John's  River,  the  whole  coun- 
try is  still  covered  by  a  dense,  unbroken  forest.  The  hardier 
woods,  difterent  varieties  of  the  maple,  beech,  birch,  and  ash, 
are  found  on  the  more  elevated  and  rocky  soil,  while  the  lower 
grounds  are  occupied  by  the  sjiruce,  fir,  larch,  and  cypress. 
The  white  and  yellow  pines,  which  ])ioduce  the  line  lumber, 
the  staple  of  the  country,  are  found  scattered  through  the  forest, 
generally  more  or  less  isolated  and  distant  from  each  other. 
Large  elms  are  generally  seen  on  the  interval  lands ;  the  gene- 


ariLITARY  POSTS  AND   CITIES. 


135 


Itl 


1. 

11, 
ur- 


() 


kor 
ss. 
er, 
',»t, 
er. 
le- 


rality  of  the  forest  trees,  however,  -witli  the  exception  of  the 
pines,  are  of  a  rather  diminutive  size. 

"  The  climate  of  Fort  Kent,  like  that  of  the  colder  regions  of 
Northern  Europ(%  does  not  seem  favorable  for  the  production 
of  pulmonary  jjhthisis.  During  my  sojourn  at  the  p'  .st,"  says 
Assistant  Surgeon  Wotherspoon,  "1  have  neither  seen  or  heard 
of  a  case  of  this  disease  among  the  French  or  American  set- 
tlers. Assistant  Surgeon  Isaacs,  uho,  during  the  two  years 
he  was  resident  at  the  fort,  had  a  much  better  opportunity  than 
myself  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  diseases  of  the  country, 
informs  m(>,  not  oidy  that  he  never  saw  a  case  of  consumption 
in  the  country,  but  that  some  of  the  inmates  of  the  garrison, 
who  were  ati'ected  with  suspicious  symptoms,  recovered  from 
them  entirely.  The  present  revenue  olli(;er  at  the  post — a  man 
of  decidedly  scrofulous  temperament^ — had  sultered  a  slight 
attack  of  lucmoptysis,  and  other  symptoms  of  incipient  pulmo- 
nary disease,  when  he  was  ordered  to  this  post.  Though  liable 
to  catch  cold  when  exposed,  his  cough  no  longer  troubles  him ; 
he  has  gained  Hesh  and  strength,  and  considers  himself  free 
from  the  disease.  The  children  in  and  near  the  garrison  have 
generally  enjoyed  the  Ix^st  of  health,  and  have  been  aiilicted 
witii  none  of  those  complaints  so  common  in  warmer  chniates." 
— Jledical  Statistics  [I.  S.  Army. 

FoKT  Sullivan,  the  most  northern  military  post  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  is  situaited  on  a  rocky  imminence  on  Moose  Island,  Passa- 
maquody  Bay,  in  the  inmiediate  vicinity  of  the  town  of  East- 
port,  Maine.  Owing  to  its  situation,  and  its  proximity  to  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  the  climate  is  d:tmp,  and  fogs  are  frequent  in 
the  earlier  summer  months.  The  wmtors  are  cold,  and  in  this 
season,  the  thermal  variations  are  often  sudden ;  yet  more  ex- 
treme cold  is  felt  m  the  interior,  on  the  main  land,  than  on  the 
island. 

Pi-ArrsBUiiGii  Babhacks. — This  station  is  on  the  west  shore  of 
Lake  Champlain,  about  a  mile  from  the  village  of  Plattsburgh, 
N.  Y.,  in  north  latitude  44^  41'.  A  range  of  mountains  borders 
the  lake  on  the  west,  rising  into  the  Adirondack  range,  and  on 
the  east  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont  are  to  be  seen 
throughout  their  whole  extent.  The  weather  is  very  variable  ; 
sudden  and  great  changes  frequently  occur.  The  thermometer 
has  an  extreme  range  of  124^,  being  100^  in  summer  and  — 24" 
in  winter ;  the  mean  annual  temperature  being  44^  Fahr.  The 
mean  annual  precipitation  in  rain  and  snow  is  33.40  inches. 
The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  south  and  southwest ;  those 
from  the  south  are  often  very  cold,  and  fi'equently  accompanied 
with  snow  or  rain. 


136 


INFl-UENCE  OP  CLIMATE. 


^ 


I  I 
I  ' 

I    ! 


m 


m 


iLit  I 


Madison  Barracks. — Thin  station  is  a,t  Sackot's  Harbor,  N.  Y., 
in  latitude  43^  50'  nortli.  It  is  situatocl  on  tlic  sotithci'u  sitlo  of 
the  bay  forniccl  by  the  entrance  of  Blaek  River  into  Lake  On- 
tario. The  liver  is  the  thin]  in  size  that  is  wholly  in  the  State 
of  New  York.  The  c^olor  of  the  water  is  quite  dark — a  feature 
not  unconuuon  in  this  region,  and  not  readily  accounted  for. 
The  water  is  not  drunk  by  those  who  live  near  it,  being  thought 
unwholesome.  The  forest  trees  are  maple,  beech,  birch,  walnut, 
bass,  ash,  elm,  and  luMulock.  Esculent  vegetables  are  produced 
iu  gi'cat  abundance  and  variety.  Tlie  staple  agricultural  pro- 
duct is  wheat ;  the  soil  in  general  being  rich.  This  post  is 
ranked  as  very  healthy,  the  troops  usually  stationed  here  suft'er- 
ing  but  >  cry  little  from  disease  of  late  years. 

Fort  Niagara,  one  of  the  oldest  fortitications  in  the  United 
States,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Piiver  Niagara,  on  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  in  north  latitude  43^  18'.  It  is 
fourteen  miles  ])clow  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  and  thirty-tAvo  miles 
from  Lake  Erie.  Mean  annual  temperature,  47"  90',  the 
gi'eatest  extremes  lieing  from  95-*  above  to  o^  below  zero; 
variations  100  \  The  general  cluiracter  of  the  climate,  being 
modified  \r:  Lho  surrounding  largo  bodies  of  water,  is  very 
favorable  for  health  and  longevity.  The  fruit  and-  vegetable 
productions  of  most  lands  flourish  here  luxuriantly. 

Detroit  Barracks,  at  the  city  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  is  situated 
in  north  latitude  42^  20' ;  having  a  mean  annual  temiierature  of 
47^  Fahrenheit.  The  surrouniling  country  is  flat.  The  sod  is 
a  IhY  clay,  combined  with  the  carbonate  of  lime  ;  hence,  in  the 
rainy  seastm,  the  land  is  in  a  great  degree  saturated  Avitli  water, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  submerged.  Tlie  smaller  streams  empty- 
ing into  the  Detroit  Ilivcr  and  Lake  St.  Clair  are  sluggish,  bor- 
dered with  extensive  marshes,  and  in  the  autumn  ai)ounding 
with  decayed  vegetable  matter.  As  may  be  su])posed,  from  this 
brief  outline  of  its  topogi-aphy,  intermittent  and  remittent 
fevers,  dianiicea,  and  dysentry  prevail  among  the  troops,  and 
also  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year." 

Fort  Mackinac,  located  on  the  Island  of  Mackinac,  in  the 
straits  connecting  Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan,  in  north  latitude 
45^^  51',  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  40. G5"  Fahr.;  the 
temperature  being  modified  by  the  surrounding  waters  of  the 
rrreat  lakes  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Superior.  This  post  is  one 
of  the  most  healthy  in  the  United  States,  and  the  town  is  .. 
great  resort  for  invalids  and  seekers  of  pleasure  during  th.. 
summer  months.  This  romantic  island  is  about  nine  miles  in 
circumference,  and  rises  on  its  eastern  and  southern  shore  in 


MILITARY   rOSTS  AND  CITIES. 


137 


be 


lin 
liii 


abrupt  rocky  cHffa,  tlio  liif^liest  point,  old  Fort  Holmes,  being 
318  feet  nbove  the  lake,  while  the  ])resent  fortress  stands  ele- 
vated 15  J  feet,  overlooking  the  \-illngo  and  the  suiTounding 
waters. 

Fort  Brady,  situated  at  the  Saut  Ste.  Marie,  Mich.,  in  north 
latitude  40-'  30',  lies  on  the  Houthcrn  bank  of  the  rive.:'  or  strait 
which  connects  Lak(^  Superior  and.  Huron.  The  river  at  this 
point  is  twenty  f(H't  l^elow  Lake  Superior,  and  580  feet  above 
the  ocean  level.  Here  is  a  ship-canal  with  two  locks,  through 
which  vessels  of  1,000  tons  and  upwards  can  pass  with  safety. 
Tlie  mean  annual  tomperatui'e  of  this  post  is  10'^  Fahr.  The 
coldest  whiter  month  (February)  had  a  mean  of  4^  Fahr.,  and 
ihe  warmest  summer  month  (August)  had  a  mean  of  iio\  The 
greatest  extremes  being  from  80^  above  to  32^  below  zero, 
showing  an  extreme  of  112-'  Fahr. 

This  old  and  im])ortant  post  and  settlement,  h'ing  on  the 
noiihern  contincs  of  the  United  States,  is  the  limit  of  settled 
country  toward  the  noiih.  The  Hudson  Bay  Company  have  a 
post  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  surrounded  by  a  few 
dwellings,  but  to  the  northward,  except  near  the  river,  irre  no 
dwellings  to  be  found,  a  wild  expanse  of  countiy  extending 
north  to  Hudson  Bay,  some  four  or  live  hundred  miles  distant. 
The  C'hippewa  tribe  and  other  Indians,  however,  are  to  be  found 
in  this  region,  and  far  to  the  north  and  west.  Many  kinds  of 
gi-ain  and  vegetables  come  to  perfection  in  this  Lititude,  but  the 
early  frosts  often  disappoint  the  husbandman,  rendering  most 
crops  very  uncertain. 

Fort  Sneiiino,  near  St.  Paul,  Min.,  is  situated  in  north  lati- 
tude 44^  53',  Avest  longitude  93^  10',  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  2,050  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Mc^xico,  by  the  course 
of  the  river.  The  mean  annual  temperature,  deduced  from  a 
continiious  series  of  observations  for  thirty  years,  is  44^  54' 
Fahrenheit,  with  a  mpximum  of  100 -',  a  minimum  of — 30^,  and 
an  extreme  of  130^,  the  mean  annual  range  being  120^.  The 
average  annual  fall  of  rain  and  snow  is  25.43  inches  ;  of  which 
G.Gl  fell  in  spring,  10.92  in  summer,  5.98  in  autunni,  and  only 
1.92  inches  in  winter.  The  smniiur  temperature  of  St.  Paul  is 
about  the  same  as  New  York  and  Chicago,  Avhile  the  Avinter 
months  are  much  colder. 

"  Fort  Snelling,  situated  on  the  angle  formed  by  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  St.  Peter's  and  Mississippi  Kivers,  is  elevated  ninety- 
four  feet  above  those  waters,  and  820  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  St.  Peter's,  a  navigable  stream,  at  its 
mouth,  is  150  yards  A\'ide  and  sixteen  feet  deej) ;  and  the  Mis- 
sissippi, at  this  point,  is  about  400  yards  wide,  but  is  much  less 


nn' 


ill 


•t    ;), 


1 


138  INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 

deep  than  tho  former,  nnvigatlon  Ix^injjf  hero  intoirnptocl  hj 
rapids  and  falls.  Tbo  banks  of  tho  latter,  up  to  tho  Falls  ot' 
St.  Anthony,  a  distance  of  ci<,'ht  miles,  are  about  200  feet  high, 
tho  upper  strata  of  which  coDsist  of  limestone,  and  the  lower 
of  sandstone.  Beyon'^  <-ho  falls,  the  banks  are  less  high,  and 
the  immediato  valley  die  river  Ifoeomes  UKU'e  extended  ; 

navigation  being  rosui  a  for  upwards  of  100  miles.  Tho  sur- 
face of  the  surrounding  country  ])resents  an  undixlating  prairie, 
studded  here  and  there  with  'islands'  of  timbi'r.  Large  lakes, 
phnitifuUy  sujiplied  with  fish,  are  occasionally  found.  The  soil, 
although  sandy,  is  productive,  producing  tho  cereals  and  vege- 
tables in  great  abundance.  Tho  climate  is  V)racing  and  healthy  ; 
Minnesota  being  celebrated  as  a  health-restoring  region." 

FoiiT  Ripley,  Min.,  is  situated  in  north  latitude  46^  10' ;  west 
■  longitude  9-1^  18',  upon  the  west  bank  of  the  ]\Iississipi)i,  elevated 
twenty  feet  above  the  river,  and  about  1,100  feet  above  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  being  the  most  northern  post  on  the  Mississippi 
River.  The  climate  is  subject  to  great  variation,  as  will  be 
seen  by  reference  to  the  meteorological  register.  The  coldest 
month,  January,  had  a  i  '^an  of  7^  Fahr.,  and  the  hottest  month, 
July,  67^^.  Tho  extre  of  temperature  observed  are  96^  in 
August  and  — 39^  in  .  ry,  1852,  showing  a  variation  of  135 

degrees  of  temperature,  uein^  M^e  gi-eatest  of  any  recorded 
locality  within  the  United  Staiea.  This  section  of  Minnesota, 
no  doubt,  being  infiuonced  by  cold  currents  of  air  descending 
from  Hudson  Bay  and  the  Arctic  regions ;  while  the  western 
and  more  southern  portions  of  the  State  are,  no  doubt,  favored 
by  a  climatic  influence  proceeding  from  the  Pacific  coast,  across 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  British  America — hence  the  favorable 
climate  of  the  Red  River  country  of  the  north. 

"  Different  kinds  of  oak  and  pines  constitute  the  prevailing 
forest  growth  of  this  region.  The  sugar  maple  abounds  in  some 
places.  The  chestnut,  walnut,  and  beach  are  unknown,  as  is 
every  species  of  fruit  tree,  wild  or  cultivated.  Il'he  soil  is  gen- 
erally a  sandy  alluvium.  The  land,  at  least  when  first  culti- 
vated, is  more  })roductive  than  might  be  supposed,  lieing  what 
farmers  term  '  warm,'  and  adapted  to  the  short  summers. 
Wlieat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  other  hardy  vegetables  flourish, 
while  maize  is  considered  a  very  uncertain  crop,  owing  to  the 
shortness  of  the  season.  The  average  depth  of  snow,  during 
winter,  is  from  two  to  tliree  feet,  which  lies  fcr  about  five 
months,  from  November  to  April. 

"  The  phenomena  of  spring,  when  once  begun,  often  pro- 
gresses with  great  rapitiity ;  and  from  the  climate  of  winter, 
the  region  someHmes  seems  to  pass  at  once  into  that  of  mid- 
summer.   Wild  sirawberries,  which  are  found  here  in  great 


DAKOTA  TERRITOLY — FORT  RANDALL. 


139 


abundanco,  ripeu  from  tlio  20tli  to  the  last  of  Juno.  Green  peas 
are  ready  for  use  about  the  second  or  third  week  m  July. 
During  the  months  of  September  and  October  the  weather  is 
generally  clear  and  delightful." 


nne 

is 

-n- 


id- 
eat 


Dakota  Territory, 

[Sanitary  Report  by  Siirguon  T.  C.  Madisom,  U.  8.  A.] 

Fort  Randall,  an  important  military  post,  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Missouii  River  in  the  territory  of  Dakota, 
north  latitude  43"*  01' ;  west  longitude  98^  12'  ;  altitude  above 
the  sea  1,245  feet.  "  The  country  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  fort  is  veiy  hilly  ;  but,  after  you  ascend  these  eminences  or 
bluft's  two  miles  to  the  southwest,  presents  an  expansive  level 
prairie.  From  the  summit  of  any  of  these  hills  you  have  a  most 
picturesque  view  of  the  surrounding  country,  the  Missouri  River 
and  adjacent  territory.  The  plateau  on  which  the  post  is  built 
is  nboiit  one  fourth  of  a  mile  from  the  river,  the  width  of  which, 
at  this  point,  is  about  the  same  distance.  The  river  bottom  is 
not  extensive,  and  the  only  timber  to  be  found  is  along  it  and 
the  Dry  Ravine  (which  latter  extends  about  15  miles),  and  is 
suitable  for  fuel  only.  There  are  several  cedar  islands  from  ]  5 
to  30  miles  above,  from  >vhich  the  best  lumber  can  be  procured, 
and  either  floated  down  in  summer  or  hauled  down  upon  the 
ice  in  winter.  The  soil  is  chiefly  seUcious,  and  productive  only 
in  small  localities.  Our  gardens  would  have  succeeded  better 
but  for  the  inadequate  supply  of  rain  and  the  myriads  of  grass- 
hoppers, which  made  their  appearance  about  the  first  of  August, 
continued  throughout  the  mouth,  and  almost  annihilated  every- 
thing possessing  verdure. 

"  The  forest  trees  are  oottonwood,  elm,  ash,  cedar,  scrub  oak, 
hickory,  and  box-elder.  Fruit — plums,  choke-cherries,  wild 
raspberries,  gooseberries,  buffalo  and  service  berries,  and  wild 
grapes.  Plants — sunflower,  wild  artichoke,  Avild  onion,  polar  or 
magnetic  plant,  and  a  gi'eat  variety  of  others.  The  Avilcl  rose  is 
also  most  abundant,  and  a  weed,  called  rattlesnake  Aveed." 

Meteorology. — "  The  climate  is  uniformly  cold  in  winter  and 
not  unpleasantly  hot  in  summer.  The  lowest  thermometrical 
observation  was  — 26^,  on  the  17th  January,  and  the  highest  104^, 
on  the  11th  of  August,  1857.  The  latest  frost  was  on  the  lotli 
of  May,  and  the  earliest  was  on  the  28th  of  September,  when 
the  thermometer  was  34^^  Fahrenheit.  There  was  no  rain  from 
the  24th  of  pctober,  1856,  to  the  4th  of  March,  1857.  The 
annual  precipitation  of  rain  from  October  1, 1856,  when  meteoro- 
gical  observations  were  first  commeaced,  to  September  30, 1857, 


'■I 


! 


140 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


was  11.64  inches  ;  and  that  of  melted  snow,  4.23  inches ;  total, 
15.87  inches.  It  rarely  rains  during  the  winter  months  of  any 
year.  The  wind  blows  almost  incessantly,  and  most  frequently 
from  the  north  in  winter,  and  south  and  southeast  in  summer. 
The  snow  storms  arc  quite  frequent,  and  usually  most  violent. 
The  Missouri  Eiver  was  frozen  over  on  the  2nd  of  December, 
and  remained  blocked  until  the  28th  of  March.  It,  hoAvever, 
requires  much  time  after  the  river  opens  before  it  is  safe  na^d- 
gation,  owing  to  floating  ice." 

Diseases  and  Deaths. — "  The  ratio  of  mortality  per  1,000  of 
mean  strength,  exclusive  of  two  deaths  by  cholera,  was  ouly  12, 
being  lower  than  any  othjr  known  military  station  on  record. 
I  do  not  believe  that  a  single  case  of  genuine  intermittent  fever 
has  originated  at  the  post.  We  have,  at  present,  one,  and  the 
only  case  of  febris  typnoides,  which  might  have  occurred  in  the 
healthiest  parts  of  Virginia,  The  climate  is  certainly  unfavor- 
able to  the  development  of  phthisis  and  the  affections  of  the 
chest  generally.  Consumption,  from  obvious  reasons,  must  be 
more  frequent  among  the  Indians  in  the  vicinity,  who  are  more 
exposed  to  atmospherical  vicissitudes  and  not  as  well  clothed 
and  fed  as  soldiers. 

"The  only  disease  about  which  we  need  feel  the  slightest 
apprehension  is  scorbutus,  the  chief  disease  from  which  the 
troojis  have  suffered  from  the  commencement  of  the  Sioux 
expedition  up  to  the  present  time  ;  but,  after  an  experience  of 
more  than  two  years  in  the  treatment  of  scurvy  and  its  comph- 
cations,  I  am  compelled  tc  b  lieve  that  the  use  of  too  much  salt 
meat  is  the  true  cause.  Th.  Indians  eat  nothing  save  fresh 
game  or  dried  buffalo  meat,  and  put  u])  for  Avinter  quantities  of 
dried  plums,  buffalo  berries,  «fec. ;  hence  their  immunity. 

"  The  Avhol.g  district  of  country,  east  of  the  Ilocky  Mountain 
range,  extending  to  the  Missouri  Eivc^-,  and  running  through 
several  degrees  of  latitude,  may  be  considered  as  a  remarkably 
healthy  region,  where  fevers,  consumption,  and  throat  diseases 
are  seldom  Imown,  or  prove  fatal." 


m. 


**l^' 


MILITARY  POSTS  AND  CrriES. 


141 


II. — Meteorological  Table. 

BnOWINQ    THE    miKCIl'AL    CITIES   AND   MILITARY   STATIONS    IN    THE    UNITED 
STATES  HAVING  A  MEAN  ANNUAIi  l-EMPERATUrE  BETWEEN  4T  &  53°  FAHK. 


Stations,  ktc. 


Boston,  Mass 

New  Bcdtbrd,  Mass 

Nantucket,         "     

SpriusTiolfl,        "    

Newiiort,  R.  I 

New  London,  (\nm 

New  Ilavcn,        "     . . . . 
Jamaica,  Long  ,' 

New  York 

West  Point,  N.  Y 

Albany,  "    

Ithaca',  "    

Newark,  N.  J 

Trenton,      "  

Philadelphia 

Lancaster,  Penn 

Ilarrisburg,    "    

C!arlisle  Barracks,  Penn . 
Pittsburgh,  "     . 

Meadvilh",  '•    . 

Columbus,  Ohio 

Cleveland,      "     

Steuben ville,  Ohio 

Toledo,  "     

Marietta.  "     

ITillsboro',         "     

Chicago,  111 

Fort  Armstrong,  111. . . . 
Augusta,  "  . . . . 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Keokuk,        "     

Muscatine,    "    

Fort  des  Moines,  Iwa. . 

Comicil  Blufls,  Neb 

Fort  Kearny,        "    

Fort  liaramie,  Dakota. 
Camp  Flovd,  I'tah. ... 

Hanta  Fe.'N.  M 

ijas  Vegas,    "    

Fort  Jones,  (a! 

Fort  Humboldt,  Cal 

Fort  I  mpquit,  Or 

Fort  Dallas, 

Fort  Yamhill,     " 

Fort  Vancouver, " 

Astoria,  " 

Fort  Cascades,  W.  T 

Fort  Steilacom,     "  

Olynipia,  "  .. . . 

Victoria,  Vancouver  Is.. 


43°31' 
41'31' 
4ri7 
43°0r)' 
4V60' 
4V-2r 

4ri8' 

40"4l' 
40'43' 
41  23 
42°;ll' 
43^27 
40^45' 
40' 13 

3ir.'j7' 

40°03' 

4ono 

40n3 
40''33 

4r38' 
3!)^57' 
4r30 
40^30 
4r45' 
3<)"3r)' 
;i!)"15' 
41S')3' 
41  30 
40  1 3' 
43°30' 
40"35' 
4r3.T 
4r33' 
41 '30' 
401^S' 
43' 13' 
40"  13' 

^iO  35' 
4r3(i 
40°4r) 
43%'53 
4r)"30 
43^37 
45  40 

4(ru 


7r03' 
70"5()' 

70  00' 
73°3r)' 

71  "30' 


73°r)r)' 

74  00' 
74°00' 
73^44' 
70  30  ' 
74°  10' 
744r)' 

75  13' 
70 '31' 
70  50' 
77=11' 
80  03' 
80  08' 
83'  03' 
8r47' 
80'4r 
83  36' 

8r3r 

83  30' 
87'35' 
00 '40 
J)0  58' 
{)0%50 

j)r3i 

91  05' 

fl3°38' 

fl5''48' 

!)5"57' 

104M7' 

113  08' 

107^14' 

105  10 

133  53 

134  Oi» 
134  0I>' 
130  55 
133''33' 
133 '30' 
133 '48' 
131 '30' 
133' 35' 
133  30' 
133  OOi 


Feet. 

50 

40 

30 

200 

30 

25 

00 

50 

25 

107 

130 

417 

30 

50 

00 

300 

300 

500 

700 

1,000 

740 

640 

070 

565 

630 

1,130 

500 

530 

'"oso 

'580 
780 
1,250 
3.300 
4.530 
4  800 
6,840 
6.418 
3,570 
50 

"'356 

"56 
50 

"m 


"  Kahr. 
48.00 
48.10 

,  50.40 
48.10 
4!).!)0 
40.00 
50.83 

,  50.00 
51.00 

i  50.50 ! 

I  48.20 1 

i  48.12 ! 

'  50.50 1 
51.10  j 
53.00 1 

i  51.40 
40.50 , 
51.10: 

i  50.80 ! 

i  50.30  : 

53.00 
j  40.70 
I  51.70 
I  50.00 
53.00 1 
50.70 ' 
i  47.00 1 
50.00 1 
50  50 ! 
4S.38i 
51 .00 1 
49.30 ! 
49.70 1 
49.30: 
48.50 
50.00 ' 
4S.05 
50.50 
49.14 ; 
51.40 ; 
51.40' 
51.38! 
52.50 ' 
49.20 ! 
52.50 
53.00 1 
4!).08 ; 
49.801 
51.00 1 
50.00! 


FOUB  SK.\B0N8. 

ring. 

e 

E 

a 

3 

a. 

00 

to 

< 





Fftlir. 

1 46.30 
;  47.70 
!  44.60 
'  45.44 
!  45.90 

40.40 
1 47.54 
'  47.30 

48.70 
1 48.70 

46.70 
'46.37 
i  46.74 
1 49.40 
:  50.00 
!  50.90 
i  49.60 

49.80 
i  50.00 

4859 

47.00 


51.10 


11.50 

50.70 
45.00 
50.50 


I  ;" 


"^  Falir. 

09.10 
07..  J 
07.S0 
70.43 
08.80 
09.30 
09.78 
08.90 
70.10 
71.30 
70.00 
0813 
71.25 
70.70 
71.50 
71.20 
00.00 
72.10 
71.40 
71.33 
73.70 


l°Fahr.i 


151.00 

j  52.00 

I  55.30 

51.73 

53.50 

53.90 

;  53.51 

1 51.80 

54.50 

'  53.20 

I  50.00 

49.35 

52.24 

52.10 

53.30 

52.10 

50.00 

52.10 

51.40 

51.84 

54.20 


^Falir. 
28.90 
39.f^0 

33.;o 

34  50 
31.30 
39.90 
33.44 
3.0.40 
31.40 
39.70 
30.00 
28.62 
31.80 


00 


33. 

33.80 

31.60 

28.0(1 

3040 

30.00 

29.37 

35.00 


70  on  I 


47.38 


,40.38 
'51.50 

■49.38 

40.39 

'•1(1.84 

47.17 

'49.08 

48.30 

49.00 

^51.80 

-49.18 

i  53.00 

i  46.30 

151.80 

51.00 

48.30 

47.30 


71.00  53.00  33.00 
09.00  51.20  1 31.30 
OS  00!  48.85  30.00 
74.00  1 51.00 


73.50 


78.43 
71.55 
74.70 
71.04 
71.90 
75.05 
70.40 
07.35 

o7.:;o 

57.55 
00.00 
70.30 
00.41 
05.00 
01.58 
04.93 
03.89 


49.48 


50.44 
47.00 
51.30 
48.70 
50.30 
48.44 
50.50 
48.34 
53.13 
53.«8 
53.45 
52.30 
49.38 
53.50 
53.70 
51.58 
50.09 


24.88 


23.76 


37.15 
38.90 
31.73 
35.05 
31.00 
23.33 
31.00 
33.50 
33.7M 
-13  35 
44.00 
35.50 
30.74 
89  50 
42.00 
33.90 
39.50 


p^^V,[ ' 


,1   V' 


i 


m 


mj 


r'  «^ 


ii 


i 


:   i 


I 


142 


mFLUENCE  OF   CLIMATE. 


Climatic  Features. 


The  belt  of  temperature  having  a  mean  varying  from  47°  to 
53°  Fahrenheit,  licis  mostly  between  40°  and  43°  north  latitude, 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  deflecting  southward  on  crossing  tho 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  then  rising  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  40° 
to  48°  north,  extending  fi'om  Cape  Mendocino  to  Pugct  Sound. 
In  passing  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  it  extends 
through  54  degi'ces  of  longitude. 

This  region  stands  unsurj  assed  as  regards  a  favorable  climate, 
fruitful  soil,  and  rich  mineral  productions.  On  this  favored  belt 
is  to  be  foTmd  the  most  dense  and  active  population  of  any  part 
of  the  Union.  Here  the  cereals  and  grasses  are  prodiiced  in  the 
greatest  abundance,  constituting  the  principal  articles  of  export. 
Indian  corn,  wheat  and  hay  form  the  principal  items.  The 
forest  and  mines  also  yield  a  rich  return,  as  Avell  as  the  agii- 
cultural  products. 

The  four  principal  cities  on  the  seaboard,  Boston,  New  York, 
Brooklyn,  and  Philadelphid,  ^\-ith  their  two  million  of  inhabi- 
tants, possess  and  exercise  a  preponderating  influence  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  New  York  alone  stands  unrivalled 
as  a  commercial  mart,  Avhere  the  products  of  every  clime  are  to 
be  found  in  abundance  ;  her  commerce  whitens  every  sea  and 
seeks  every  port  of  the  habitable  world.  The  cities  of  the  inte- 
rior lying  in  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  alike  ai'e  alive  with 
industry,  while  the  broad  spread  country  teems  with  rich  agri- 
cultural products,  particularly  between  the  base  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountaii.s  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  embracing  the  Mississippi 
Valley  north  of  the  Ohio  River. 

On  the  western  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  new  States  are 
springing  into  existence,  no  doubt  soon  destined  to  contain  a 
dense  population,  who  will  possess  all  the  energy  and  facilities 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Atlantic  cities.  Hero  the  mines  and 
the  soil  will  yield  their  rich  reward. 

The  North  Pacific,  possessing  a  favorable  climatic  influence, 
with  the  adjacent  shores  of  America  and  Asia,  aftbrds  a  new  field 
for  commerce.  From  this  part  of  the  republic,  China,  Japan 
and  the  long-sought  East  Indies  are  open  to  the  American  flag — 
that,  too,  by  important  treaty  stipulations  of  late  date.  Puget 
Sound  and  adjacent  waters  afford  ample  accommodation  for  all 


Ml 


MILITARY  rOSTS — WEST  POINT. 


143 


y-i 


get 


the  mercantile  fleets  of  the  world,  being  siiiTounded  by  immense 
quantities  of  timber  valuable  for  sliip-bnilding. 

The  climate  on  the  seaboard,  from  Massachusetts  Bay  to 
Delaware  Bay,  is  well  understood  and  appreciated  by  thousands 
of  invahds  who  annually  seek  the  favorite  health-restoring 
resorts  scattered  along  the  coasts  of  Massachusetts,  Bhodc 
Island,  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  The  interior  of  the  countr}', 
cast  of  the  Atlantic  range  of  mountains,  is  equally  well  under- 
stood and  acknowledged  to  have  a  favorable  climate.  The  Valley 
of  the  Mississippi  is  still  subject  to  fevers  of  an  intermittent 
t;ype,  but  less  subject  to  some  other  diseases,  altogether  com- 
paring favorably  with  other  parts  of  the  Union.  Iowa  and  the 
northern  part  of  Missouri,  situated  between  the  Mississippi  and 
Missouri  rivers,  partakes  of  the  same  character  as  the  more 
eastern  portion  of  this  great  valley,  situated  on  the  same  joarallel 
of  latitude. 

Military  Posts. 

"West  Point,  one  of  the  most  favored  locations  in  regard  to 
climate  and  healthy  influences,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of 
Hudson  River,  in  north  latitude  41^  23',  west  longitude  74'\ 
about  midway  in  that  jiart  of  the  river  called  the  "  Highlands," 
52  miles  distant  from  the  city  of  New  York.  The  pubhc  build- 
ings are  on  a  plain  about  'i  mile  square,  having  in  its  rear  a 
range  of  hills  of  from  700  to  1,400  feet  in  height.  On  each  side 
of  this  plain  there  are  ravines  that  serve  to  carry  oil"  the  gi'eat 
floods  of  water,  Avhieh  descend  fi-om  the  adjacmit  hills  after 
heavy  rains  or  spring  freshets.  The  soil  is  gravelly,  with 
frequent  ledges  of  rock,  either  just  below  the  surface,  or  rising 
above  it  in  the  form  of  boulders. 

The  mean  annual  temperatiire  of  this  post,  as  determined  by 
observations  continued  for  thirty-ojje  years,  is  50'  50'  Fahr., 
with  an  extreme  range  of  110^,  rising  in  sunnner  to  100  ',  and 
falling  in  winter  to  10^  below  zero.  The  prevailing  winds  are 
from  the  N.  W.  and  S.  The  annual  quantHy  of  rain  is  about  52 
inches.  There  are  no  diseases  which  can  be  considered  pecu- 
liar to  this  station  ;  acute  inflammatory  diseases  are  rare.  The 
spring  and  autumn  are  most  ])ro(luctive  of  severe  catarrhal 
attections  and  rheumatism ;  the  sammcr,  of  disorders  of  the 
digestive  organs  ;  and  the  Avintiu*  is  decidedly  the  most  healthy 
period  of  the  year.  In  addition  to  the  oiflcers,  cadets  and 
soldiers  permanently  residing  at  this  post,  with  their  families, 
altogether  numbering  about  800  souls,  the  hotel,  during  tho 


1 


if 


■^1 


m 


m 


144 


rSTLUENOE  OF  CLIMATE. 


summer  months,  is  thronged  with  visitors  from  every  section  of 
the  Union,  enjo;"'^jg  the  salubrity  of  the  climate. 

Fort  Laramie,  Dakota  Tcr.,  situated  in  north  latitude  42^ 
12',  longitude  104^  31',  is  a  post  of  much  importance,  being  on 
the  most  favored  line  of  travel  across  the  continent,  where 
emigration  flows  westward  toward  the  Pacitic  States  and  Tem- 
tories.  Its  altitude  is  4,519  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  is  50  degrees  Fahr.,  rising  in  summer 
to  100  degrees  and  falling  in  winter  to  20  degrees  below  zero. 
The  mean  annual  precipitation  of  rain  and  snow  is  20  inches. 
The  soil  in  the  vicinity  appears  to  be  sterile,  owing,  no  doubt, 
to  the  extreme  dryness  oi  the  air  and  almost  total  absence  of 
dews.  The  mean  amuial  tcmjicrature  is  50~^  32'  Fahrenheit. 
The  maximum  temperature  during  the  year  was  92^  in  July, 
and  minimum  22^  in  December,  showing  an  extreme  of  70 
degrees,  being  onlj'  about  half  as  much  variation  as  occurs  in 
the  same  parallel  of  latitude  on  the  upper  Mississippi  and 
Atlantic  side  of  the  continent.  The  annual  quantity  of  rain 
that  falls  varies  from  34  to  00  inches ;  average,  for  a  number  of 
vears,  50  inches. 

Camp  Scott,  or  Bridger's  Fort,  the  -Nnntering  place  of  the 
army  of  Utah  in  1857-8,  is  situated  in  latitude  4P  18'  N.,  longi- 
tude 110'^  32'  W.  from  Greenwich ;  altitude  7,800  feet.  Fort 
Bridgcr,  an  Indian  trading-post,  lies  on  Black's  Fork,  a  tribu- 
tary of  Green  Biver.  This  mountain  stream  is  of  crystal 
clearness  and  purity,  and  is  immensely  valuable  in  this  arid  and 
thirsty  region.  The  valley  has  an  average  width  of  about  one 
mile  and  is  separated  from  the  higher  table  land  by  a  range  of 
iiTcgular  sand  hills.  During  spring  and  summer  the  valley  is 
covered  with  an  abundant  lierbage,  and  olibrs  a  most  striking 
contrast  to  the  barren  waste  on  either  side. 

Assistant  Surgeon  Barthalow,  in  his  Sanitary  Beport, 
remarks  : — "  This  region,  as  well  as  the  Great  Plains,  like  the 
steppes  of  Tartary,  is  adapted  only  to  herds  and  grazing,  and  a 
nomadic  population  of  savages  or  Indian  traders,  with  their 
squaws  and  cattle.  It  can  never  become  a  nursery  of  civihzcd 
heroes  ;  and  thus,  in  the  New  World,  may  be  revived,  in  some- 
what the  same  form,  the  ancient  patriarchal  life,  no  ■  almost 
extinct  in  the  old. 

"  If  we  form  an  opinion  of  the  mountain  men  from  tne  reports 
of  poetic  explorers,  we  would  probably  accord  them  many  vir- 
tues— integrity,  steady  friendship,  a  noble  sense  of  justice,  and 
high  personal  bearing.  I  did  not  find  the  original  of  this 
description  in  real  life.  They  have  some  of  the  good  qualities 
of  the  Bedouin  Arab,  many  vices  to  which  he  is  a  stranger,  but 


UWSH<l««a»»&9» 


iS'i  ■ 


MILITARY  POSTS — FORT  SCOTT. 


145 


I 


IS 


not  many  of  tho  virtues  of  a  good  citizen.  A  country  like  the 
Great  Plains,  which  has  its  analoquo  in  the  deserts  of  the  East, 
would  bo  incomploto  without  tliat  other  characteristic — a  wan- 
dering people  huTiiig  a  strong  thirst  for  plunder,  and  acknow- 
ledging no  law  l)ut  tlio  kx  talionis. 

"  My  observations  on  tlie  climatology  of  this  country  have 
had  but  a  limited  scope,  extending  through  the  fall  to  mid- 
winter. I  have  been  very  agreeably  impressed,  thus  far,  with 
tho  comparative  mildness  of  the  climate.  Minus  18^  Fahren- 
heit is  the  lowest  degree  to  which  mercury  has  yet  fallen,  and 
that  was  during  tho  nioutli  of  November,  a  degree  of  cold  not 
since  experienced. 

"  One  distinguishing  feature  of  this  climate  is  its  equability 
and  dryness.  No  sudden  transitions  hiive  been  observed,  and 
during  the  winter  proper,  whilst  tho  cold  has  at  no  time  been 
severe,  the  thermometer  has  rarely  risen  above  the  freezing 
point.  The  absence  of  moisture  is  weU  shown  l)y  the  dryness 
and  contraction  of  all  kinds  of  wood-work,  and  tho  freedom  of 
surgical  instruments  and  arms  from  the  slightest  traces  of  rust. 

*'  However  di^ticient  this  region  may  be  in  the  more  humaniz- 
ing influences,  it  has  at  least  the  gi'cat  merit  of  being  extremely 
favorable  to  health  and  longevity.  There  arc  two  diseases 
which  occasionally  prevail — erysipelas,  in  an  epidemic  form, 
and  mountain  fever.  Besides  these  I  know  of  no  diseases 
which  may  be  said  to  have  characters  peculiar  to  this  coimtry. 

"A  question  Avell  worthy  of  consideration:  Is  this  cliiimte 
adapted  to  the  amelioration  and  cure  of  the  tubercular  diath(^- 
sis  V  As  ])hthisis  is  annually  on  the  incn^ase  in  the  United 
States,  and  as  the  subject  of  its  hygenic  management  proves  to 
be  move  important  than  the  treatment  by  medicaments,  the 
consideration  of  the  climate  is,  necessarily,  of  the  first  conse- 
quence. In  my  late  re])ort  I  stated  the  beneficial  influence  of 
the  journey  over  the  })lains  upon  those  in  whom  a  ]ihthisical 
tendency  was  marked  and  imuiinent.  The  purity  of  the* 
atmosphere  and  tho  eijuabilitv  and  di'yness  of  the  (;limato  are 
conditions  highly  favorable  t ,  such  impro-sement." 

Assistant  Surgeon  Wood,  in  a  repent  upon  the  above  subj(u-t, 
remarks: — "  Tlu^  climate  of  those  broad  and  elevated  table- 
lands, Avhich  skirt  tho  base  of  tho  llocky  Moimtains  on  the 
oast,  is  especially  beneficial  to  persons  suflering  from  pulmon- 
ary disease,  or  with  a  scrofuloiis  diaiiiesis  ;  that  more  is  due  to 
the  climate  itself,  is  shown  by  tin;  fact  that  ;imong  the  troops 
stationed  in  this  i-egion  (whoso  habits  are  much  tho  same 
every  where)  this  class  of  disease  is  of  very  rare  occurrence. 

"  From  these  facts  it  appears  to  nie  evident  that  to  the  sub- 
ject of  an  hereditary  or  ac(juircd  }>redisposition  to  consumption, 


146 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


the  Great  Plains  and  the  mountains  oft'cr  more  certain  relief 
than  any  other  climate  in  our  country." 

Fort  Steilacoom,  Washington  Territory,  situated  in  lat.  47° 
10'  north,  and  long.  122^  23'  west  from  (rrecnwich,  is  one  mile 
oast  from  Puget  Sound,  and  ahout  800  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  "  The  Cascade  range  of  monntaius,  running  north  and 
soiith,  is  east  distant  about  thirty  miles,  and  one  of  its  snow- 
capped i)oaks,  having  an  altitude  of  14,000  feet,  is  directly  in 
view  ;  while  the  snow-peaks  of  the  01ym])ian  range,  distant  about 
forty  uiiles  on  the  west,  are  also  visil)le,  along  the  sound,  vary- 
ing from  one  to  two  miles  in  breadth,  and  near  the  mountains 
are  dense  and  lofty  forests.  The  country  immediately  around 
is  comjiosed  of  beautiful  undulating  prairies,  intersected  by 
numerous  small  streams,  which  have  their  sources  in  tiio  fresh- 
water lakes  with  which  the  prairies  are  interspersed.  The 
prairies  are  separated  from  each  other,  and  surrounded  by 
dense  and  almost  impcnetral)le  forests,  while  they  are  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  groves  of  oak,  which  give  them  a  most 
l)eautiful  and  park-like  a})]iearanc(>.  Sjirings  of  piu'e  water  are 
abundant,  both,  in  the  prairies  a?id  Avoodlands.  The  soil  in  this 
vicinity,  particularly  of  the  prairies,  is  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  sand  and  gi'avel,  and  is  almost  entirely  unlit  for  agricultural 
purposes,  except  on  the  margins  of  the  streams  and  in  low 
places  near  the  lakes.  The  soil  of  the  woodlands  is  of  a  different 
nature,  being  a  kind  of  loam  ;  but  so  dense  are  the  forests  that 
years  will  elapse  before  it  is  brought  into  requisition." 

"  The  forests  are  composed  of  pine,  hendock,  fir,  cedar,  oak, 
maple,  ash,  cottonwood,  yew,  dogwood,  alder,  aspen,  crab- 
apple,  liazid,  itc.  The  ])ine,  cedar  and  iir  growing  on  the  high- 
lands ;  the  oak  on  the  ])r!iiries  ;  and  the  maple,  ash,  cotton- 
wood,  &c.,  on  the  bottom-lands  near  the  streams.  Blackberries, 
raspberries,  gooseben-ies,  cranberries,  whortleberries,  strawber- 
ries, dewberries,  and  currants,  are  very  abundant.  A  species 
of  fern  is  very  common  in  every  section  of  the  country,  and 
the  uva  ursi  covers  the  ground  on  the  margin  of  all  the 
prairies.  The  country  abounds  with  animals,  which  afford 
excellent  amusement  to  the  s[)ortsman,  and  a  i)rincipal  article 
of  food  to  the  Indians.  The  birds  of  different  kinds  are  numer- 
ous. During  the  latter  part  of  autumn  great  numbers  of  swans, 
geese,  ducks  and  cranes,  make  their  appearance  on  their  way 
to  more  southeni  latitudes,  and  are  not  generally  seen  again 
until  the  opening  of  spring,  Avlien  they  are  returnmg  north. 

"  The  climate  of  this  country,  as  regards  temperature,  pos- 
sesses a  medium  between  hyperborean,  cold  and  intertropical 
heat.     The  seasons  may  be  said  to  be  divided  into  the  rainy 


'•  ; 


mh' 


MILITARY  POSTR — FORT  DALLES — ASTORLi. 


147 


II 


and  Jry.  From  the  middle  of  OctoLer  to  tlic  first  of  April  is 
tlio  rainy  season.  During  April  and  IMay  there  are  frequent 
showers,  after  which  it  rains  occasionally,  l)nt  seldom  sufficient 
to  thoroughly  v,vi  the  ground.  Snow  falls  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  every  winter,  but  seldom  remains  on  tlui  ground  over 
two  or  three  days.     Ice  seldom  forms  over  an  inch  thick. 

"  The  prevailing  winds  during  the  rainy  season  are  southerly  ; 
and  during  the  dry,  northerly.  Southerly  winds  arc  always 
indicative  of  rainy  weatlier,  and  northerly  of  dry.  The  country 
generally  being  high  and  dry,  the  lakes,  all  of  pure  fresh  water, 
no  marshes  or  alluvial  bottcmis  being  in  the  vicinity,  diseases 
of  a  malarious  origin  are  almost  entirely  unknown.  Catarrhs, 
rheumatism,  and  diseases  incident  to  exposure  to  cold,  com- 
bined Avith  moisture,  are  quite  common  during  the  rainy 
season." 

Fort  Datjles,  Oregon,  is  situated  in  north  latitude  4:5^  36', 
west  longitude  120^  55',  being  elevated  850  feet  above  the 
ocean  ;  mean  annual  temperature,  52^  7i)'  Fahr. ;  average  iu^nual 
fall  of  rain  15  inches.  "  The  post  at  the  Dalles  of  the  Columbia, 
so  called  from  the  river  being  compressed  by  the  encroaching 
rocky  cliffs  into  a  narrow  cut,  through  which  the  whole  volume 
of  water  nishes,  is  a  few  miles  above  the  entrance  of  the  river 
into  the  mountain  ridges,  jutting  out  from  the  Cascade;  range, 
and  two  hundred  miles  iVom  the  ocean.  Like  all  of  middle 
Oregon,  this  is  an  admiral )le  gi'azing  region  ;  but,  owing  to  the 
long  dry  season,  is  scarcely  susce])tible  of  cultivation.  This  is 
eminently  a  volcanic  region,  basalt  and  basaltic  conglomerate 
abounding.  The  position  ma}-  be  considered  perfectly  salubri- 
ous. Within  the  experience  of  the  residents  in  the  vicinity, 
fevers  of  every  description,  or  any  local  diseases,  are  entirely 
unknown." 

Astoria,  Oregon,  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Columbia 
River,  near  its  entrance  into  the  Pacific,  in  north  latitude  40^^ 
11',  west  longitude  123^  48',  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of 
52'^  Fahrenheit.  The  coldest  winter  month  (January)  had  a 
mean  of  40 -^  Fahr.,  and  the  warmest  summer  month  (August) 
had  a  mean  of  G4  \  "  The  most  noticeable  feature  in  the  climate 
of  Astoria  is  its  equabilit}'.  The  sumuK^rs  are  cold,  dry  and 
healthy ;  the  winters  stormy,  rainy  and  disagreeable,  but  mild. 
The  aurora  is  frequent  during  the  spring,  and  intensely  bril- 
liant. Thunder  storms  are  not  frequent  nor  severe.  Astoria, 
and  the  shores  of  the  ocean  southward,  afford  pleasant  places 
of  resort  from  the  hot,  dusty  and  malarial  sunuiier  atmosi)hero 
of  Portland  and  other  places  sitiiatcd  in  the  Willamectte  Val- 
ley ;  and  in  the  future  growth  of  the  country,  Clatsop  Plains 


Ill'    I 


148 


INFLUENCE  OF   CLIMATE. 


will  1)0  on  tliose  westera  shores  wliut  Newport  .lud  Capo  May 
are  on  the  Atlantic. 

"The  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  Astoria  is,  for  tlio  most  part,  a 
heavy  rod  and  black  day,  mixed  witli  some  {jjravel,  which 
becomes,  during  the  rainy  season,  soft  and  sticky  ;  and  in  the 
summer  dry  and  tissured ;  the  heach  is  covered  with  pebbles 
and  conf^lomcrate  of  clay  and  lime,  enclosing  petrified  shells 
and  ■'  jarino  animals. 

"  Pre-eminent  among  tlu;  forest  trees  are  those  of  the  ])iuo 
tribe  ;  three  varieties  foiind,  including  the  ahis  Domjask;  often 
attaining  incredible  height  and  circumference  ;  also,  yew-leaved 
hemlock,  red  cedar,  and  a  large-leaved  maple,  not  found  cast  of 
the  Bocky  Mountains.  There  are  innumerable  varieties  of 
bushes  and  creeping  plants,  many  of  them  producing  delicious 
fruit  in  abundance.  The  potato,  turnip,  be(^t,  and  cabbage,  are 
largely  cultivated,  and  attain  an  enormous  size  and  great  per- 
fection. The  grasses,  growing  on  the  tide-lands,  are  tender, 
and  aflford  a  nutritious  food  to  animals,  who  are  able  to  keep 
in  good  condition  throughout  the  year  by  grazing." 

Fort  Cascades,  "Washington  Territory,  "  is  situated,"  says 
Surgeon  J.  K.  Barnes,  "  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Columbia 
River,  at  the  lower  termuuis  of  the  ])ortago  around  the  rapids, 
in  latitude  'i;V  85'  north,  longitude  121'^  80'  west.  The  imme- 
diate site  of  the  post  is  a  small  i)lat(uiu  on  the  western  slo])e  of 
the  Cascade  range,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  precipitous 
mountains,  open  only  to  the  east  and  west  l)y  the  river  gorge, 
elevated  but  a  few  feet  above  the  highest  water  level,  and  bear- 
ing unmistak(\able  marks  of  having  at  some  remote  period  been 
a  portion  of  the  river  bed.  A  line  of  isolated  volcanic  ])eaks, 
whose  siimmits  are  covered  Avith  ])eri)etual  snow,  extending  in 
a  direction  nearly  north  and  south,  marks  the  western  border 
of  the  elevated  plateau  between  Pitt  lliver  and  the  Dos  Chutes 
Valley. 

"  Exi)erience  has  shown  a  great  diffcu'onco  in  the  seasons  at 
points  (-n  the  east  and  west  side  of  the  Cascade  range  upon 
nearly  the  same  latitude.  The  sjiring  is  three  weeks  earlier  at 
Fort  Dalles  than  at  Fort  Vancouver,  and  five  weeks  earlim-  than 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Some  fruits  and  vegetables  that 
come  to  great  ])erfection  at  the  Dalles,  scarcely  mature  at  Fort 
Vancouver,  and  cannot  be  successfully  cultivated  at  Astoria,  on 
the  Pacific  coast." 

The  ditterence  in  the  amount  of  rain  that  falls  in  different 
localities  in  Oregon,  and  Washington  Ter.,  is  very  remarkable, 
by  far  the  greatest  quantity  falUng  near  the  sea-coast.  Tho 
annual  fall  at  Fort  Orford  is  G8  inches ;  at  Astoria,  GO  inches ; 


ASCENT  OF  MOUNT  HOOD. 


149 


Fort  Steil.acoom,  52  inches  ;  Fort  Yancouvcr,  45  inchea,  and  at 
the  Dalles,  cast  of  tlio  coast  range,  15  inches  :  average,  50  inches. 

Ascent  of  Mount  Hood. 

This  gigantic  mountain  of  the  Cascade  range  of  mountains, 
situated  in  Oregon,  aI)out  45^  20'  north  latitude,  is  RU])posed  to 
he  t]i(>  higlK>st  ]ieak  in  the  United  Stati'S,  if  not  higher  than 
Mt.  St.  Elias  in  Hussian  America. 

The  summit  was  reached  in  August,  ISfJO,  by  a  party  of 
exi)lorers,  who  give  the  following  reliable  infornuitiou.  "Wo 
liave  reached  the  summit  of  Moiiut  Hood,  and  here  succeeded 
in  melting  snow  and  boiling  the  water  with  the  spirit  lam}). 
AVatcr  here  boils  at  180  Fahrenheit.  According  to  Prof. 
Porter's  rule  (given  in  his  Chemistry) — and  also  by  those  in 
the  Encyclopedia  Brittanica — 550  feet  should  be  allowed  for 
every  degree.  82^  by  550  gives  the  height  of  Mount  Hood  to  be 
17,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  highest  point  of  vegetation  is 
11,000  feet  (where  commences  the  snow  hne.)  The  highest  of 
trees,  of  stunted  pine,  is  9,400  feet.  The  ascent  was  difficult 
and  hazardous." 

Prof.  A.  Wood,  one  of  the  party,  pronounces  the  Alpine  flora 
of  Mount  Hood  to  be  of  a  very  interesting  character.  Ho  finds 
at  least  thirty  plants  peculiar  to  this  mountain,  many  of  which 
are  undoubtedly  new.  A  consideralde  attention  has  l)een  given 
to  the  geological,  miueralogical  and  volcanic  character  of  the 
mountain.  The  crater  is  about  1,000  feet  lielow  the  summit,  on 
the  s(mth  side.  Although  at  present  not  active,  it  is  continually 
emitting  a  column  of  sul[)hur()us  steam  and  .smoke,  the  odor  of 
which  is  very  nauseating. 

The  extreme  sunnuit  is  described  as  a  circular  ridge  of  three 
or  four  hundred  yards  in  length,  having  its  outward  curve  to 
the  north.  On  this  ridge  are  three  or  four  eminences  rising  a 
few  feet  above  the  average  of  the  ridgc\  The  highest  of  these 
is  the  one  to  the  east,  though  it  is  only  a  few  feet  higher  than 
the  others.  The  snow  upon  th(>m  was  from  six  to  ten  feet  in 
de])tli,  and  only  in  one  place  did  a  rock  project  through  it. 
That  was  the  extreme  s  uumit  of  tlu^  highest  point  of  the  ridge. 

The  scene  around  was  overpoweriugly  indescribable.  It 
would  require  the  canvas  and  brush,  and  years  of  toil,  to  give 
an  idea  to  the  eye — yet  a  few  general  observations  may  be 
taken.  The  first  is  the  Cascade  range  itself.  From  south  to 
north  its  whole  line  is  at  once  und(^r  the  eye,  from  Diamond 
Peak  to  Mount  Eainer,  a  distance  of  not  less  than  400  miles. 
Within  that  distancte  are  to  be  seen  Mount  St.  Heleiis,  Adams, 
Jeti'erson,  and  the  Three  Sisters,  making,  with  Mount  Hood, 
eight  snowy  mountains. 


•^'i!f  r 


150 


INFT.UENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


! 


III. — Meteorological  Table. 

RlIOWrNO    THK    I'HI.NTII'AI,    (  ITIKS    AND    MIMTAlty    STATfONS    IX    TTIR    UN'ITKD 
STATICS  HAVING  A  MIOAN  A.N.SUAI*  TK.MrtUATiniK  UKTWKKN  5:)'  &  GO'  KAHIl. 


HT*TIi>NH,    KTI!. 


Fort  DilawaH! 

Mallirnoro  (Ft.  .Mcllfiiry) 

I'Vedcrick  (  ity,  Md 

AmiiipoliH  "  .  .|01)H. 

VV'AHiiiNfrioN,  I).  ('.,  Nut, 
l'\)rt  VViiHliiii^toii,  iM(l.  .  . 

AhIiIuikI,  Vii 

WicliiiKiiid,  Va 

I^'ort  iMunroo,  Vu 

SmithficM 

Lynclihur^,      " 

Ivamiwlm,         " 

(JllHt<Hl,  .V.  (' 

MiiriVci'sliorougli,  N.  ('. . 

ClllllH^I   Hill, 

Kiioxvillc,  'I'cnn 

NnHlivillc,       "     

Uli;n\v()();l,      "     

McillplliH,         "      

Iltmtrtvillc,  Ala 

BardHtown,  Ken 


Sprin^^dalc,      '■    

Ntjwport,         "    

I'ari.s,  "    

Ii()ui8vill(\       '•    

<  'amx'ltoii,  Inil 

New   Ilariniiiiy,  Iiid. . . . 

("iiiciniiati,  Oliio 

I'ortHinoiitli,    "    

St.  LoLiirt,  Mo 

h'ort  Scott,  " 

Fort  Sinitli,  .Mo 

liUwri'iicc,  Kan 

l''ort  l>i'av(Mi\vortli,  Kan. 
Fort  inicy,  '•    . 

l'\)rt  (iih.Hon,  Ind.  Tcr.  .. 
Fort  Aibuckli!,    "      . ... 

Albu(]ucr(mc,  N.  M 

Fort  Stanton,      '•   

Fort  Coiirail,       "  

I>a!nina,  ' 

Fort  Wclmtcr:     "   

l'\)rt  Uiiclianan,  Ark..  . . 
(iri'at  Salt  l^akc,  Ijush.. 

J''ort  'I'cjon,  Cat. 

Mont(Ti^y,        *'   

Sacramento,    "   

licnucia,  "   

San   I'YanciHco,  Cal 

Fort  (Jri'ord,  Orr^'on.  . .  . 


;i!)  2.")' 

:;'.)  17' 

:.0  ::4 

!)H  r»H' 


■AH'V.',' 
•AH  ;{H' 

:i7  :.'0' 
:;?  00 
:!« .10' 
:,7  ;!0' 
;!H  ");{' 
::()  :(3' 
:i()  :iO' 


•lit 

•.]r, 


:M 


.■".(•. 

10' 

2H' 
OH' 

•ir,' 

:;7  42' 

:i8  07' 

;i!)  00 

;{.s  Hi' 

:iH  OS' 

:i7  r>H' 

:;h  Oh' 

;ii)  ()()' 

;w  4.r 

;!H  '10' 


_J  _ 

7.'5^:?4' 
70  ;;r)' 

77  IH' 

70  '^7' 
77  O-J' 
77  0(i' 
Kl  ,-)7' 
77  S,' 
70  IH' 
70  'ir 
7 


1/ 

-3 
S 


FouB  Hrasons. 


1)  07' 


:i7 


;5H  oM 

:;!)  2\' 

;]<)  00' 

;{.■)  47' 

■M  :i7' 

;i.-)  0(i' 

:',:',  :]()' 

;i;5  :!J' 


HI  2r,' 
77  4.T 
77  0(1' 
7!)  17' 

h:;  ,",s' 

HO  40' 

87  i;!' 

HH  00' 
80  40' 
H,-)  l',' 

84  :.'!)' 

84  07' 

H.")  '..>.">' 

HO  40' 

H7  r.o' 

84  2'.)' 

x:l  r,r,' 

1  0  i)-) 

01 

!)1 


.ii) 

2'.y 

\2' 
14' 

;io' 


'.',2 

O.) 

47 

;u 

40 

40 

40 

;!4 

ih> 

•.Hi 

;i(i 

;jH 

I'M 

.■;s  o;{ 

:J7 

48 

4W 

44 

ill 

00 

!),-,!() 

07  0!) 

100  •.',H 

1(».")  :{8 

107  00 

107  14 

108  04 


!  >ll 

;iia 

M18 

i  \-2\ 
V2\ 
V2->  OS 
\-Z2  2n 
124  20 


fio 

0()' 


0' 


Fiict. 
10 


20 
110 
00 

120 
10 


000 

r,:]{) 
480 
400 
GoO 

'  r.Vd 

500 
810 
000 
450 
;i20 
54:! 
5 10 
450 

1,000 
400 
800 
000 

1,000 
500 

1 ,000 

5.000 


a 
X 


"  I'lihr 
55.00 
5 ».:!«; 

5:j  ;!4 ' 

55.40 ' 

.50.00 

57.80 

.58.00  I 

50.27 

50.14 

57.70 

.57.00 

5:1.47,1 

59.00! 

00.00  i 


.a 

a. 
'A 


a 
a 

a 


Knlir.  "I'lihr.  "  I'lilir.  °l''iilir. 

):i.50  75.00  58.50  !  ;i<(.28 
74.:  12  50.20|:i4.24 
;8.:!2'.5:i.i;5  .'M-Hi 
75.:iO  '  57.70  '  :{4.82 


52.70 
.50.:i7 
5:!.  78 
55.70 
57.40 


70.:!0 :  50.40  ;t0.00 
77.70  58.00  I  ;{7.;i(5 


.57.:JO  77.00  I  00.40  41. :iH 
50.87  70.57' 01.08 '41.45 
5.5.01  ,70.  ill  50.04! 


42.12 


50.:i0 

55.70 
5H.50 
(!.(!:( 


.■)i).i 


50.05   77.00  I  57.'J»  j  40.00 

57.81  7H.V4  1 58.57  |  42.04 
.55,80  70.80  1. 50.70  :!0.;J0 
50.80   77.40!  57. 10 

I ^ ! I 


:!!),50 


00.50 

00.00 

50.2:5, 

5:!.00 

5:!.70 

51.00 


^01.00   78.00  jOO.(;0  42.00 
(11.00    70.00,00.80   42.20 


5;i  80  7;{.70 


.54.50 
55.88 
55.7:i 
5:!.8() 
55,00 
54..50 
5  1..50 
00.00 
54.50 
.52.78 
52.70 
00.00 
00.00 
.50.:!2 


53.00   'i'i.m 


55,00  7:110  54.70  yO.JJO 


I. 


.5;'. 

70 

51 

SO 

51.15 

51 

78 

01 

20 

55 

.54 

.5;! 

78 

54.00 

4,5T(i 

50.40 

0,000 

55.00 

0,:550 

54.80 

5,:i:i0 

.58.00 

4,:i50 

5;i.24 

57.'.iO 

140 

5(J.:iO 

50 

.50.80 

04 

58.2!) 

150 

.55.80 ;  \ 

50 

5:5.00: 

.)...()() 

01.00 
01.00 
55.00 
52.52 
.50.80 
52.50 
5 


.'.00 
55.47 
51.7:5 
5;!.00 
54.00 
50.10 
5(!.54 
54.50 
51.82 


74.00 
74.20 
70  10 
74.05 
77.00 
77.0') 
74.(;0 
H().:{0 
70.00 
7S.00 
74.00 
71.00 
77.40 
7520 
71.70 
75.50 
75.02 
7:5.()8 
(iO.Ol 
72.85 
07.00 
(!0.:{0 
00.00 


5:5.00 
.55.00 
55.44 
5.5.27 
00.00 
5:5.11 

.5;s.(;o 
55.10 

01.50 

02.00 
57.:5:5 

5.5. (i.5 
(10.80 
50.80 
5:5.48 
00.48 

(i2.'55 
57.:iO 
01.27 
00.57 
5().h;5 


:5:5.70 
:5().0() 
:!2.27 
:j:5.0() 
41.13 
:!2.:J8 

2!».04 
20.00 
41.00 
40.50 
;i7.15 
:iO.(;0 
;;o.50 

:i5.08 
41.20 
41.50 

:i2.oo 
42.:i« 
51.20 
40.20 
40.00 
50.80 
47.48 


l:i 


CIJMATIO  FFATURF.S— MILITARY  POHTS. 


151 


Climatic  Features. 


a 

ir,  -Knhr. 
0   ;!(t.2M 

;5 ,  :i4.Hl 
■«  I  :{4.H:i 
10  :;•}.(»() 
10 1  :n.:i(5 


•• 

.  .  •  • 

!)(> ', 

•  •  •  • 

!:!.70 

00 

!(i()0 

'14 

\t:il 

27 

\\\m 

00 

11.12 

It 

:;2.;js 

(;(; 

2'.l.<il 

ii; 

^0.00 

.•)() 

•u.oo 

00 

•lono 

;i:i 

:;7.i.-) 

(;."■) 

:i(i.(!0 

so 

:i!)..')0 

HO 

:;r,.'.»s 

4K 

■1 1 .2'.» 

4H| 

41..")0 

;i2.()0 

■">.") 

'l;-'.:;^ 

:;o 

.-,1.-0 

27 

4(5.21) 

4i).()0 

h:5 

5().H0 

oo 

47.48 

Till!  Ixilt  of  tcnitory  luivin/^  u  iiicnii,  v;iryin<^  from  r>^>"  to  00'^ 
Fahronhoit,  lies  mo.stly  IxitwcMiij  K)  and  '.%'  north  lutitudo  on 
tho 
f   tl 


o 


Atlantic   h1o|)o,  and   ]>aH.s(!s   wostwanl    acrosH   tlio  Valhiy 
Mis.si.sH)*'!;!    towiirdH    tlic;    Jtockv  Mountains.     It    tlicn 


towiirdH  tli(!  Jtocky  Mountains.  It  tli( 
dothurts  Houtlnvard,  and  a^'ain  liscs  as  it  approaclicH  tin? 
Pacitic  Ocoan,  bcinj^  unsurj)a.s.scd  for  fertility  of  soil  and  rich 
iiiiiK-ral  ])rodii('tionM.  Here  is  ])rodu('('d  Indian  corn,  Avlx^at, 
tol'acco,  hcMij),  and  almost  ovory  variisty  of  tho  j^ra[)c,  produc- 
inf5  larf,'(!  (|uantiti(!H  of  wine. 

Ah  regards  climato  and  health  it  is  very  much  varied  accord- 
ing to  altitude;.  Fovcrs  exist  on  th(!  Atlantic  sea-board,  in 
ditleront  forms,  whih;  for  the  most  part  IIm;  (country  to  the  west- 
wai'd  is  salubrious  and  invi^^'oratin;^'.  It  is  wiill  wat(!red,  b(;infij 
favored  with  many  navi^'abh;  sticams,  that  of  the  Ohio  liivor 
l)assing  nc.'ar  one  thousand  miles  from  east  to  west,  beiVu'o 
onterinj.;  into  tho  Mississijipi.  1'he  j)oi)ulation  is  also  dens(!  and 
fast  increasini^  in  all  the  elennints  of  wealth.  TUi  iuoxhaustibh; 
beds  of  bituminous  coal  hero  d(!])osited  is  alone;  a  semrco  (jf 
immense  ])rolit,  whih;  the  richest  j.<old  liesids  of  (Jalifornia,  idso 
silver  mines  on  tlu;  eastem  slope  (;f  tho  Siiina  Nevada,  lie 
within  this  Ixdt  of  territory,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Military  PoHt.s. 

FoUT  MoNKoi:,  situated  a  ft!\v  miles  noith  (jf  Norfolk,  Va.,  in 
lat.  137''  2'  north,  lon^-.  70'  12'  west,  occupie-s  the;  oxti'emity  of  a 
level  sandy  beach,  known  as  Old  V<j'iid  (Juiiij'oit,  standing  on 
tho  western  shon;  of  tia;  ('hesajx'ako  I  Jay,  having  an  open 
exposure  of  wat(H'  surface  and  within  reach  of  tlu;  sea  inlhuMico. 
"  Tho  geological  formation  of  this  piniinsula  is  that  of  ocean 
sand  resting  up(;n  clay.  TIk;  gemeral  aspc'ct  of  tin;  country, 
both  proximate  and  distant,  is  uniformly  low  and  Hat.  The 
very  limited  extent  of  l)arren  sandy  ground,  and  tho  consequent 
almost  (rntin;  abseuco  of  soil  iiiimediatc^ly  around  the  fort,  are 
n(K;essarily  jiroductive  of  a  circumscrilx d  veg(;tation  in  the 
shajto  of  trees,  shrubs,  ])lants  or  grasses.  Within  tho  enchjsure 
of  the  work,  howiiver,  and  gnjwing  s}>arsoly  on  tho  giounds 
immediately  contiguous  to  it,  tins  live  oak,  in  its  evogreen 
foliage,  is  (juit(!  conspicuous,  having  been  hero  retained  and 
preserved,  for  purposes  of  oruarneut,  in  tho  original  cleaving  of 


m 


152 


INFLUENCE  OP  CIJMATE. 


the  f,TOun(ls  ;  tliis  point  bcinj:?  tlio  extreme  nortliern  limit  in 
Avl'^cli  it  in  found  cm  tlu!  Atlantic  coast. 

"  Tlio  geo^Tapliical  locality  of  Old  Point  Comfort  would 
naturally  denote  the  climate  of  thin  position  to  bo  that  of  an 
intermediate,  mild,  or  temjierate  one  ;  and  such  the  leadhig  me- 
teoroloj^ical  phenomena  of  the  different  seasons  impress  uj)on  it. 
The  winters  are  open  and  mild,  but  seldom  with  s  ich  depres- 
sions of  temperature  as  give  rise  to  snow.  Althoup;h  the  entire 
district  of  country  contiguous  to  this  important  military  post  is 
annually  subjected  to  the  calamity  of  having  rife  every  form  of 
malarial  fever,  the  immediate  locality  of  Fort  Monroe  may  justly 
claiiu  exemption  from  this  evil  ;  this  in  fact  l)ein<,'  a  favorite 
summer  resort  for  invalids."  The  coldest  winter  month,  Jamiary, 
had  a  mean  temp,  of  40 '  Fahr.,  and  the  warmest  summer  month, 
July,  had  a  mf^an  of  7»S^  Avoi'ago  annual  temperature  59^. 
Annual  fall  of  rain,  45  in(!lu\s,  the  quantity  being  remarkably 
even  during  the  ditl['er(>nt  months  of  the  year." 

The  temperature  of  Norfolk,  Va.,  may  be  considered  very 
similar  to  Old  Point  Comfort,  although  somewhat  warmer  and 
subject  to  malignant  fevers. 

"  Jeffehron  iiAitiiACKS,"  says  Surgeon  De  ( ^imp,  "  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River,  ton  miles  liclow  the 
City  of  St.  Louis,  upon  a  sloping  ridge,  elevated  about  100 
feet  above  the  river,  and  distant  from  it  about  150  yards.  The 
ground  continues  to  rise;  gently  for  one  mile  west  of  the  bar- 
racks, attaining  an  elevation  of  aljout  200  feet  above  high  water 
mark.  The  surface  of  the  earth  for  many  miles  south  and  west, 
and  for  four  or  five  miles  north,  is  tradulating  ;  and  as  it  fre- 
quently rises  into  abrupt  hills  with  deep  ravines,  the  drainage 
is  perfect.  The  soil  is  a  rich  loam,  br'^ed  upon  clay,  with  a 
substratum  of  limestone.  The  country  around,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  public  grounds,  remains  (1830)  covered  with  a  heavy 
growth  of  tnnber.  Indications  of  lead  are  common,  and  stone- 
coal  is  fomid  in  abundance  within  a  few  miles  of  the  post. 

"  The  river  is  aliout  one  mile  wide,  and  upon  the  opposite 
side,  in  Illinois,  i)  the.  great  '  American  bottom,'  which  is  said 
to  be  sixty  miles  long,  and,  on  an  average,  seven  miles  wide. 
On  the  river  it  is  skirted  Avith  forests,  varying  in  breadth  from 
a  half  to  one  mile,  whilst  the  remaining  space  to  the  high 
ground  consists  principally  of  prairie,  covered  with  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  grass.  This  prairie  is  chequered  with  numerous 
lakes ;  and  as  the  evaporation  of  the  water  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  summer  exposes  the  surface  of  the  subjacent  soil,  a 
iraitful  source  of  disease  is  engendered,  the  influence  of  which 
is  sensibly  felt  a^  die  barracks.     The  water  used  at  the  post  is 


/'  y 


SrnJTARY  POSTS — ST.  LOUIS — FORT  MAVENWORTII. 


163 


usiifilly  that  of  the  river  ;  hvit  in  suinnior  it  hns  been  common 
to  resort  to  Avells  and  sprinfifs,  the  Avatcrs  of  which  are  preju- 
dicial to  h(>altli,  causinfi;,  in  many  persons,  bowt^l  co.nph'uuts. 

"Tlio  lmildinfj;s  nsed  as  barracks  are  built  '^f  stone,  and 
occupy  three  sides  of  a  square.  The  position,  "vith  regard  to 
healtli,  is  as  good  as  any  Avhicli  could  have  been  selected  upon 
the  riv(n'  bank  ;  but,  from  an  acquaintance  vatli  diseases  of  this 
country  far  morc^  than  t^v(nlty-t^Yo  years,  I  am  able  to  state  that 
fewer  cases  occur,  and,  Avheu  they  do,  they  are  much  milder  in 
their  character,  when  removed  fi'om  the  river." 

St.  Louis  Auskxal  is  situated  within  the  incorjiorated  hmita 
of  the  city,  in  latitude  'M'  37',  longitude  90^  15'.  "  It  is  elevated 
above  the  Mississippi,  at  an  ordinary  stage  of  water,  about  12 
feet.  The  main  c-hannel  of  the  river  runs  east  of  the  arsenal 
grounds  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  an  island  intervening, 
and  a  small  channel,  at  times,  has  l)iit  little  water  in  it,  leaving 
(ixposed  a  broad  surface  of  a  muddy  deposit,  covered  to  a  cou- 
feiderable  extent  with  decayed  wood,  brought  by  each  rise  of  the 
xtpper  rivers  from  the  wood-drifts.  Being  situated  at  the  lower 
end  of  a  largo  city,  where  gi-eat  numbers  of  dead  animals  are 
thro\\-n  into  the  river,  not  a  few  of  them  are  deposited  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  arsenal  when  the  river  is  low.  In  addition  to  the 
above  causes  of  disease,  a  httle  beloAv  the  arsenal,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river,  there  is  a  chain  of  lakes,  which  in  midsummer 
become  very  low,  leaving  tracts  of  muddy  ground  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  sun.  AH  these  causes  are  fruitful  sources  of 
malaria,  producing  fevers  of  an  intermittent  type.  From  long 
residence  in  this  vicinity,"  says  Surgeon  Do  Camp,  "  I  am  con- 
vinced that  when  the  south  and  southeast  winds  prevail,  those 
causes  are  made  operative  to  a  considerable  extent.  Elevation 
above  the  river,  especially  if  a  little  removed  from  it,  tends,  to  a 
great  extent,  to  render  the  above  causes  inoperative.  Persons 
residing  in  the  rear  of  the  arsenal,  on  high  ground,  are  seldom 
attacked  with  chills  and  fevers  ;  but,  those  who  have  recently 
come  to  reside  at  the  arsenal,  from  distant  ])arts  of  the  country, 
are  subject  to  this  disease." 

Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  situated  in  north  latitude  39°  11', 
west  longitude  94'^  44',  is  elevated  896  feet  above  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  mean  annual  temjierature  is  53^  Fahrenheit ;  the 
coldest  month,  January,  having  a  mean  of  28^,  and  the  hottest 
month,  July,  11'^  Fahr.  Average  annual  fall  of  rain  and  snow, 
30  inches.  "  This  important  military  post  is  located  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Missouri  Kiver  about  500  miles  above  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Mississippi.  As  the  Missouri  here  is  not  more 
than  300  yards  wdde,  being  one  of  its  narrowest  points,  the 


m 


154 


INFLUENCE   OF  CLIMATE. 


water  is  deep  and  ciiiTent  rapid.  This  miglity  river  is  at  times 
navigable  for  steamboats  1,750  miles  above  tlie  fort,  and  always, 
unless  obstructed  by  ioe,  to  its  mouth.  "  The  soil,  which  is 
quite  productive,  consists  of  a  sandy  loam,  covered  with  a  rich 
vegetal)le  deposit,  the  Avliole  based  on  a  stratum  of  clay  and 
limestone.  The  forest  abounds  in  trees  valuable  for  timber  or 
fuel.  With  the  exception  of  pine,  almost  all  kinds  are  to  be 
found." 

Fort  Scott,  Kansas,  is  situated  in  north  latitude  38^,  west 
longitude  94°  30',  four  miles  ^I'est  of  the  Missouri  line,  and  upon 
the  military  road  from  Fort  Leavenworth  to  Fort  Gibson, 
Indian  Ter.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  54^ -^  Fahren- 
lieit.  The  coldest  month,  January,  had  a  mean  of  33°,  and  the 
warmest  month,  July,  77^.  Average  annual  fall  of  rain,  42 
inches.  "  Owing  to  the  jiliysical  conformation  of  the  country, 
the  climate  is  one  of  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  of  drjuess  and 
moisture.  After  a  long  and  debilitating  summ^jr,  the  winter, 
most  frequently  commencing  abruptly  with  cold  storms  from 
the  northeast,  a  succession  of  alternations,  the  mercury  falling 
or  .'ising  30°  to  40°  in  a  few  hours.  Sp)'ings  and  wells  supply 
an  abundance  of  good  water,  which  laiely  fails,  even  in  the 
dryest  seasons.  An  accurate  examination  of  the  country,  for 
several  miles  in  each  direction,  has  failed  to  discover  any  local 
feature  which  may  be  considered  objectionable,  or  as  remotely 
the  caiise  of  disease.  The  record  of  the  post,  however,  show- 
ing so  great  a  2:)roportion  of  malarious  fevers,  an  explanation  is 
required  of  the  statement  that  no  appreciable  local  cause  for 
them  can  be  said  to  exist  in  this  vicinity.  This  explanation  may 
be  found  in  the  history  of  the  occupation,  habits  and  exposures 
of  the  troops  ;  the  me^-^orological  conditions  of  the  seasons 
when  most  prevalent ;  i  .^  in  what  I  conceive  to  be  the  general 
characteristics  of  a  rich  praii'ie  country." — Medical  Statistics  U. 
States  Army. 

Beneclv,  Cal.,  is  a  mihtary  j^ost  situated  in  latitude  38°  8' 
north,  and  122°  4'  west,  on  the  Straits  of  Carquenez,  connecting 
the  bays  of  San  Pablo  and  Suisun,  being  about  thirty  miles 
east,  in  a  direct  line  from  the  Pacil'c  Ocean.  The  town  of 
Benecia  lies  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  barracks  and  is  a 
place  of  importance.  The  coldest  winter  month,  January,  had 
a  mean  temp,  of  47°  Fahr.,  and  the  warmest  summer  month, 
July,  had  a  mean  of  G7".  Average  annual  temperature,  58°  29' 
Fahrenheit.     Annual  fall  of  rain,  17  incnos. 

The  climate  is  mild,  divided  into  two  seasons — the  wet  and 
dry.  The  winter,  a  wet  season,  usually  commences  in  Novem- 
ber, and  continues  through  March.     A  few  weeks  after  the  tirst 


MIUTARY  POSTS— FORT   JONES. 


155 


38^  8' 
lectiiig 

miles 
oAvn  of 
lid  is  a 
•J,  liad 
month, 
58^^  29' 


rains,  the  grass  springs  up,  and  in  a  sliort  time  the  country  pre- 
sents the  appearance  of  spring.  The  fruit  trees  bloom  in  Yeh- 
ruarj  and  March  ;  the  vire  and  olive  grow  in  great  perfection. 
Suow  seldom  falls  on  the  plains  ;  occasionally  the  higher  hills 
in  the  vicinity  are  covered  for  a  short  time  ;  ice  sometimes,  but 
rarely,  forms  ;  the  hills  and  valleys  continue  green  until  the  last 
of  May,  when  the  oat  and  other  grasses  begin  to  ripen  and  turn 
yellow  ;  and,  by  the  middle  of  July,  the  ground  is  baked  and 
cracked,  and  the  whole  country  presents  the  appearance  of  the 
greatest  aridity.  At  this,  and  other  points  near  the  cojist,  the 
sea-breeze  blows  regularly,  commencing  about  9  A.  M.,  and  con- 
tinuing till  sundown  ;  tlio  nights  are  cool  and  pleasant. 

The  most  prevalent  diseases  at  this  post,  and  in  the  vicinity, 
are  fevers  and  affections  of  the  respiratory  and  digestive  organs. 
The  fevers  are  not  severe,  the  remittent  form  being  mild  and 
easily  managed ;  the  intermittent  is  apt  to  return  frequently 
and  continue  for  a  long  time.  The  tliseases  of  the  respirator}' 
organs  are  generally  mild  catarrhs,  usually  cured  in  a  few  days. 
The  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs  are  diarrhoea  and  dysen- 
tery, both  frequently  proving  extremely  obstinate  and  difficult 
of  cure. — Medical  StaJtstics  U.  Slates  Anny. 

The  c'imate,  etc.,  of  San  Francisco  maybe  considered  similar 
to  Benecir.,  although  somewhat  cooler,  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature being  55^  Falir. ;  the  average  annual  fall  of  rain  being 
23  inches,  mostly  falling  during  the  winter  months. 

Fort  Jones,  Cal.— "In  latitude  41°  35'  N.,  longitude  122°  52' 
W.,  and  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  '  Coast  Range'  of  moun- 
tains, exteudmg  eastwardly  towards  the  Sierra  Nevada,  is  an 
oval  basin  thirty  miles  long  by  six  wide,  knoAvn  as  Scott's 
Valley.  The  southern  as  well  as  the  northern  extremity  of  this 
valley  are  bounded  by  two  high  ranges  of  mountains,  the  con- 
necting links  between  the  coast  range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
That  range,  bounding  the  northern  extremity,  is  a  spur  of  the 
coast  range  ;  that  bounding  the  soiithern  extremity  is  called 
Scott's  Mountain,  being  some  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean,  while  the  valley  has  an  altitude  of  nearly  3,000  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

"From  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  geological  characteristics  of 
the  surrounding  country,  one  is  led  to  believe  that  its  origin 
is  of  ratlier  recent  date.  On  some  of  the  moiintains  there  are 
fresh  appearances  of  scoriic,  and  in  the  crater  of  one  of  the 
neighbormg  mountains,  sulphurous  ebullitions  are  distinctly 
visible.  The  pedrigal  at  the  base  of  the  mountains  and  in  the 
small  valleys  appears  to  have  undergone  but  little  change,  and 


' 


I 


15G 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


! 


!:!'! 


is  generally  covered  ■\vltli  nn  exceedingly  yonng  growth  of  tim- 
ber. The  character  of  the  soil  of  this  valley  is  principally 
ai'gillaceons  and  arenaceous.  The  former  jiresents  a  reddish 
appearance,  and  holds  in  coml)ination,  minute  pebbles,  and  the 
latter  is  composed  chiefly  of  micaceous  mattei*.  With  plenty  of 
moisture  and  sufficient  heat,  this  peculiar  soil  v.ould  bring  forth 
as  delicious  and  luxuriant  vegetables  and  fruit  as  the  richest 
vegetable  mould  of  the  prairie  lands  of  Iowa. 

"  Fort  Jones  is  situated  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  val- 
lev,  on  a  gentle  slope  of  the  mountain,  and  in  a  pine  grove. 
Tlie  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  post  is  52^  Fahr.  Spring 
52°,  summer  73^,  autumn  52'-',  Avintcr  SB-",  the  highest  being 
100'^,  and  the  lowest  3"'  below  zero,    AltitLde,  2,570  feet. 

"  The  climate  of  Fort  Jones  may  bo  regarded,  c  n  the  whole,  as 
salubrious.  The  hne  of  demarkation  between  each  of  the  four 
seasons  of  the  j'ear  is  conspicuously  dra"\m.  The  fall  sets  in 
about  the  middle  of  September,  and  continues,  with  cool  nights 
and  warm  days,  until  the  first  of  December,  which  is  ushered 
in  either  oy  heavy  rains  or  deep  snows.  This  continues,  at 
intervals,  until  the  middle  of  February,  when  tlie  hills  and  val- 
leys are  clad  in  verdure.  March  r.'id  April  come  and  go  with 
warm  days  and  cool "  aghts,  and  not  unfrequcntly  accompanied 
Avitli  frosts.  June,  July,  and  August,  bring  hot  (lays,  and,  occa- 
sionally, a  sultry  night.  The  summer  is  not  always  attended 
with  a  drought  as  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  A  rain 
storm,  accomj)anied  with  thunder  and  lightning,  in  July  and 
August,  is  not  an  unfrequent  occurrence. 

"  The  most  prevalent  disease  among  the  troops,  as  well  as  the 
citizens,  is  intermitting  fever  in  some  form.  The  overflowing  of 
the  river  banks,  with  the  rank  vegetable  matter  that  the  water 
holds  in  combination,  sufficiently  accounts  for  this  form  of 
disease. 

"It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  when  females  from  the  Atlantic 
States  arrive  on  this  coast,  those  who  have  been  barreu  for 
years,  and  those  vho  have  never  borne  children  at  all,  no 
sooner  become  acchmatcd  than  the  ut-erine  organs  assume  a 
new  tone,  and  conception  inmiediately  follows.  This  change  of 
the  functions  is  not  temporary,  but  continues,  and  the  once 
sterile  female  may  calculate  with  the  greatest  certainty  that 
the  end  of  every  eighteen  months  will  bring  an  oflspring.  The 
American  cow,  after  reaching  this  coast  from  the  plains,  will 
bring  a  culf  every  eleven  or  twelve  months,  and  this  calf  will 
. bring  forth  yoing  when  two  years  old.  Sheep  breed  twice  a 
year,  and  more  frequently  bring  forth  two  at  each  birth  than 
one.  If  I  were  to  advance  an  opinion  of  my  own  on  this  great 
procreative  tendency  of  both  man  and  beast  on  this  coast,  I 


MILrrARY  POSTS — MONTEREY. 


157 


would  attribute  it,  in  a  gi-eat  measure,  to  this  bland  and  sfciniu- 
latinf]f  climate.  The  climate  has  certainly  the  effect,  on  females 
who  come  here,  of  producing  an  immoderate  action  of  the  cata- 
menial  functions.  But  I  will  not  attempt  to  ofier  any  further 
cause  for  this,  but  will  leave  it  foi  the  more  scientific." — Extract 
from  Sanitary  Etpurt  (/  Asst.  Simjcon  C.  C.  Keemy,  185G. 

Fort  Reading,  Cal.,  situated  in  latitude  40^^  28'  N.  ;  longitude 
122^  7'  W.,  from  Greenwicli,  is  elevated  about  700  feet  abovi; 
the  level  of  th(!  sea,  lying  in  the  nortliern  part  of  the  valley  of 
the  Sacramento  Eiver,  Mean  annual  temperature,  52^  Fahr., 
showing  a  great  degree  of  heat  for  the  latitude.  The  country 
around  is,  in  a  general  view,  an  irregular  prairie,  bounded  on 
the  east  by  a  range  of  mountains — Lassen's  Mountains — running 
north  and  south,  sixty  miles  distant,  and  one-fourth  of  the  way 
to  the  range  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  ;  on  the  west  by  the  coast 
range,  twenty-tivc  miles  distant  ;  on  the  north  by  Shasta  Butt(^ 
ninety  miles  distant,  which  ai))iears  to  S2)read  out  east  and  west 
and  connect  with  Lassen's  and  the  coast  range  ;  and  on  the 
south  ib  is  continuous  with  a  plain  that  follows  the  course 
of  the  Sacramento  River.  MouL^ain  peaks  covered  ivitli  snow 
are  hero  to  be  seen  for  most  })arts  of  the  year  in  the  distance. 
Sluxsta  Butte,  which  is  immediately  under  the  122d  parallel,  is 
estimated  to  rise  1G,000  feet  aboA'o  the  sea.  The  prairie  is 
atudd(Hl  hero  and  there  with  mots  of  white  oak  ;  and  white  oak, 
the  nut  'pine,  and  Avillows,  with  long  grass  and  dense  under- 
growth, skirt  the  wat(  r  courses.  Elsewhere  the  country  is  bare 
of  evi^rything  that  would  intercept  tlie  Aviuds.  The  cultivation 
of  the  soil  is  of  sui*h  little  extent  that  it  cannot  eflect  in  any 
degree  its  healthfulness ;  yet,  intermittent  fever  occurs  hero 
at  all  seasons.  In  point  of  climate  and  salul)rity,  the  descrip- 
tion of  this  part  of  the  country  is  a})plicable  to  much  of  the 
coimtry  lying  between  the  range  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tain and  the  coast  range. 

Monterey,  California,  situated  forty  leagues  soutli  from  San 
IVancisco,  on  the  shore  of  Monterey  Bay,  m  north  latitude  80  ' 
JU5',  is  probably  the  most  beautiful  town  on  all  the  coast  of 
California.  "In  all  that  constitutes  beauty  of  scenery,  derived 
from  a  proper  proportion  of  woodland,  water,  hills,  and  distant 
mountains,  Monterey  Avill  bear  a  comparison  with  other  places  of 
more  c(>lebrity.  The  atmosphere  is  humid,  the  tc-mperaturo 
agreeably  warm  and  equable ;  the  prevalent  winds  are  sea 
breezes  from  the  west  and  north  ;  the  land  winds  from  the  east 
and  soutl'  are  much  less  fiequent,  blow  less  strongly,  and  may 
fi'cquently  be  detected  alone  by  the  uncomfortable  feelings  they 
produce,  without  reference  to  the  weather-vane.     Thc^e  is  ono 


!| 


n 


I 


158 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


rainy  season,  from  November  till  April.  This  is  about  the 
average  time  the  rains  begin  and  terminate,  although  some- 
times considerable  rain  will  fall  as  early  as  October  and 
continue  until  May.  During  this  period  there  are  frequent 
intervals  of  fine  vi^eather  of  such  extraordinary  beauty  and 
balmy  temperature,  that  the  traveller  arriving  on  the  coast 
might  well  imagine,  with  Col.  Fremont,  that  it  resembled  the 
climate  of  southern  Italy.  During  the  dry  season  the  fogs  rise 
from  the  sea  lato  in  the  afternoon,  float  over  the  town,  and  dis- 
perse usually  aljout  9  r.  m.  There  is  also  a  fog  generally  in 
the  mornings  until  10  A.  m.  These  fogs  are  found  on  the  entire 
coast  of  California  as  fa^  south  as  Point  Conception.  In  the 
rainy  season,  at  which  time  the  winds  are  from  the  south  and 
east,  tlieiv'^  are  no  fogs ;  the  sky,  when  not  rain}-,  being  clear 
and  cloudless.  There  is  a  difference  between  the  mean  temper- 
ature of  the  summer  and  ■winter  months  of  only  from  G^  to  7° ; 
and  hence  the  annual  temperature  (60^  Fahr.)  is  very  uniform, 
although  the  diurnal  changes  may  be  very  considerable. 

"This  post  is  represented  as  being  remarkably  healthy,  no 
particular  disease  could  said  to  be  endemic  to  this  locality. 
The  diseases  from  which  the  inhabitants  are  entirely  free  are 
contagious  or  infectious  fevers ;  those  fi'om  which  they  are 
nearly  exempt,  are  consumption,  dyspepsia,  aneiu'ism,  and 
malignant  tumors  ;  and  those  which  are  mild,  and  of  rare  occur- 
rence, are  diarrhoea  and  dysentery. 


II: 'I 
11'' 


I'l 


MILITARY  rOSTS  AXD  CITIES. 


159 


IV. — Meteorological  Table, 

BHOWrXG    THE    I'lUNCIPAli    ( ITIKS    AND    JIU.ITAUY    S-TATIOXS    IN    THE    UNITED 
STATES,   HAVING   A  MEAN   ANNUAL  TEMPEKATUHE  ABOVE  CO'   PAIIR. 


Stations,  rra 


Ralciph,  N.  C 

Fort  Macon,  N.  C 

Fort  Jolinston,  "  

Columbia,  S.  C 

(  amden,       "   

Charleston  (Ft.  Moultrie). 

Savannah,  Uoo 

Axipjustu,      "    

Sparta, 

Fernandina,  Fla 

St.  AufTu.stine,  Fla 

Fort  Kin<,^  "  

Pilatka, 

New  Smyrna,     "   

Fort  Pierce,        "  

Fort  Dallas,        "  

Key  West,  "  

Jacksonville,       "   

Fort  Brooke,      "   ....... 

Cedar  Keys,        "   

I'eiisacola  "   

Mobil(\  Ala 

F(  .'t  Morgan,  Ala 

Mt.  ^'^ernon  Arsenal,  Miss, 

Natchez,  Miss 

Vicksburg,  "   

Little  Rock,  Ark 

Fort  Pike,  La 

Now  Orleans,  La 

Baton  Rouge,  "  

Fort  Jesup,      "  

Fort  'I'owson,  Ind.  Ter.. . 
Fort  Washita,  "        "  ..  . 

Austin,  Texas 

Fort  Belknap,  Texas 

Fort  Worth,         "     

Fort  Gates,  "     

Galveston,  "     

San  Antonio,        "     

Corpus  Christi,     "     

Fort  Brown,         *■     

Fort  Chadbournc,  Texas. 

Fort  Duncan,  Texas 

Fort  Quitman,     "     

Fort  Fillmore,  N.  M 

Fort  Yuma,  Cal 

San  Diego,      " 

Jurupa,  " 

Fort  Miller,    " 

Stockton,        " 


35^7' 
34°4l' 
;54'00' 
34  00' 
34  17' 
32"4r)' 
32'  05' 
3328' 

33  17' 
30' 35' 
2n"4S' 
2!)  10 

29  34' 

28  54' 

27  30' 
25  55' 
2r32' 

30  15' 
28'^00' 

29  07' 
30']  8' 
3042' 
30"  14' 

3r]2' 

3r34' 
32'24' 
34'40' 
30' 10' 
20'57' 

30  20' 
3r33' 
3400' 

34  14' 

30  20' 
33  08' 
32 '40' 

31  20' 
29  18' 
29' 58' 

28  05' 
25  54' 

32  02' 
28M2' 
30'40' 
3213 
32=43' 
32"42' 
34^00' 
37''00' 
37°57' 


To 

B 
O 

>-; 


78°48' 
7(540' 
78  05' 
HlOO' 
80 '33' 
79=51' 
81  07' 
81^53' 
83  00' 
8r30' 

81  35' 

82  10' 

81  ■48' 
8102' 
80  20' 
80  20' 
81=48' 

82  00' 
82  28' 
8303' 
87' 27' 
87  59' 
88=00' 
8802' 
91=28' 
9100' 
92=12' 
89=38' 
90  00' 
91=18' 
93=32' 
95=33' 
!!fl=38' 
97=40' 
98=48' 
97='25' 
97=49' 
95'or 
98' 25' 
97=27' 
97=26' 

100=05' 
100  30' 
105  00' 
100=02' 
11430' 
117  14 
11725 
119=40' 
121  =  14' 


FOUB  SCABONS. 


Feet. 

"26 

20 
200 
275 
25 
40 
600 
800 

' '  25 

50 

25 

20 

30 

20 

10 

14 

20 

35 

20 

25 

20 

200 

240 

350 

150 

10 

10 

40 

80 

300 

645 

050 

1,000 

1,100 

1,000 

'  COO 

20 

50 

!  2,120 

I  2,842 

3,700 

3,937 

i     120 

I     150 

M,000 

400 


°  Fnhr. 
01.00 
f.2.23 

05.08 

00.00 

01.00 

00.00 

07.44 

04.00 

04.40 

09.80 

09.03 

70.00 

C9.C4 

71.60 

73.20 

74.75 

76.00 

09.50 

72.48 

C9.00 

08.74 

70.00 

!  07.00 

I  05.81 

167.10 

!  65.00 

I  62.30 

09.86 

09.86 

08.14 

I  06.>'9 

61.09 

62.21 

I  67.50 

,  64.00 

I  63.54 

!  60.12 

74.00 

09.25 

70.95 

74.00 

02.38 

70.00 

01.89 

63.98 

74.00 

02.00 

03.28 

06.00 

61.00 


°  Fahr. 


59.40 

i  64.40 

i  59.00 

1 58.20 

i  05.85 

1 67.08 

64.37 

63.90 

69.40 

68.54 

70.72 

70.00 

71.80 

73.14 

74.10 

75.79 


B 

a 
m 

"  Fahr. 


78.51 

80.19 

78.00 

80.20 

80.59 

80.70 

80.21 

79.20 

.  79.20 

i  80.37 

I  80.22 

i  80.56 

!  79.14 

i  81.30 

:  81.50 

I  82.50 


s 


°  Falir. 


°Fuhr. 


05.19  ' 

07.46 

58.00 

59.40 

08.11 

67.94 

63.37 

68.20 

70.80 

71.53 

70.64 

70.20 

72.43 

74.80 

70.27 

78.00 


72.08 

70.08 
"08.59 

70.00 
;!  64.81 
1167.02 
'08.00 
1 :  66.60 

03.00 
!  69.97 
!  69.94 
;  169.84 
;:  67.00 

1 62.39 

02.16 
j;  68.40 

04.90 
!!  63.11 
I' 64.79 
!  1 73.20 
1 1 69.68 

71.45 
'74.85 


i  80.20 

79.67 

81.57 

'  82.70 

i  80.33 

j  78.68 

181.00 

i  78.40 

;  78.00 

!  82.84 

82.27 

I  81.21 

181.27 

!  79.10 

!  79.29 

82.92 

i  80.95 

I  80.43 

j  82.30 

87.50 

82.  Ki 


82.53 

83.37 

04.35 ;  70.77 


I 

I 

^01.92 
63.72 
72.10 
00.00 
01.00 
62.78 
59.40 


j  84,48 
82.78 
81,32 
88.00 
71.26 
72.44 
85.48 
73.26 


73.44 
71.04 
09.86 
71.00 
69.17 
65.81 
67.10 
04.70 
i  02,00 
i  70.83 
70.71 
08.21 
66.22 
61.27 
63.25 
,  07.00 
'  65.15 
65.37 
67.80 
70.00 
71.20 
73.11 
74.77 
02.55 
72.25 
02.42 
04.27 
75.69 
64.40 
(i5.78 
60.36 
04.00 


50.00 
40.00 
41.00 
51.88 
54.00 
48.07 
40.50 
59.80 
58.08 
.58.41 
57.18 
03.22 
63.27 
6(J.58 
09.00 


02.35 
58.23 
54.93 
57.00 
53.68 
51.73 
.52.00 
50.30 
45.00 
55.80 
50.53 
54.21 
51.00 
43.93 
44.14 
30.00 
44.!J0 
45.25 
49.58 
00.40 
53.90 
50.73 
62.28 
45,87 
53.92 
40.'I6 
46.62 
56.80 
53.29 
53.89 
49.35 
46.08 


^w 


-r 


IGO 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Climatic  Features. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  Union  having  a  mean  tempera' 
ture  varying  from  ()0°  to  H'i^  Fiihrcuheit,  lies  between  3G  and 
24  degrees  north  hititucle.  Key  AYest,  -which  is  the  most  south- 
ern post  in  the  Ignited  States,  is  also  the  hottest.  It  runs 
through  37  degrees  of  longitude  on  a  Hue  from  Charleston,  H.  C, 
to  San  Diego,  Cal.,  including  the  States  of  North  Carolina, 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Loui- 
siana, Arkansas,  Texas,  Southern  Califoi-nia,  the  Territory  of 
Arizona,  and  part  of  Ncav  Mexico. 

This  largo  section  of  the  United  States  is  mostly  siib-tropical 
in  its  climatic  character,  producing  cotton,  rice  and  sugar  in 
great  abundance  ;  the  former  product  being  annually  exj:)orted 
to  an  immense  amount.  Indian  corn,  wheat  and  sweet  potatoes 
are  raised  in  most  parts,  while  Texas  furnishes  pasturage  for 
large  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Yellow  or  pitch  pine,  live 
oak,  the  cyprus,  and  many  other  kinds  of  forest  trees  abound 
in  the  lowlands,  while  a  still  greater  variety  flourish  in  the 
more  hilly  or  mountainous  sections.  The  orange,  and  other 
fniits  peculiar  to  a  tropical  region,  ilourish  hi  Florida,  on  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast,  while  the  grape  and  other  kinds  of 
fruit  abound  in  Southern  California  ou  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  minerals,  although  not  numerous,  ar(^  very  valuable  ;  gold 
being  found  in  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina  in  consider- 
able quantities,  while  Arizona  is  found  to  i)roduce  gold,  silver, 
and  copper,  although  as  yet  but  partially  explored.  Southern 
CaUfornia  also  yields  gold,  quicksilver,  ajid  other  valuable 
minerals. 

Military  Posts  and  Cities. 

CiTAELESTON,  S.  C,  situatod  m  latitude  32^4ry ;  longitude  79"^ 
ryl' ;  lies  six  miles  in  land  from  Fort  3I()ul(rie,  on  Sullivan's 
Island.  The  fort  is  suiTounded  in  part  by  the  village  of  Moul- 
trievillo,  which  is  a  fashionable  resort  during  warm  weather. 
Mean  annual  tt;mperaturo  (JO  -  Fahrenheit ;  the  mean  of  tiio 
winter  months  being  51"^,  and  the  summer  months  81°.  Tlio 
average  annual  fall  of  rain  is  45  inches ;  the  greatest  quantity 
falling  in  July,  August  and  September. 

The  city  of  Charleston,  being  identified  with  the  above  island 
and  military  post,  the  Army  statistics  are  quoted  in  regard  to 
the  situation  and  health  of  this  locality.     "  Sullivan's  Island  ia 


i'U;l 


MILITARY  POSTS  AND  dTIES — DEW  POINT. 


161 


\ 


3al 


gold 

lidcr- 

silvcr, 

liern 
liable 


79'^ 
divan's 
Moul- 
■atlier, 

the 
Tlio 
autity 


on  the  north  side  of  the  bay  which  forms  Charleston  harbor.  It 
is  a  sandy  island,  and  is  but  slightly  elevated  above  the  level  of 
the  sea  ;  several  storms  having  been  kno\\Ti  to  carry  the  waves 
over  it  so  as  almost  to  submerge  it.  There  appear  to  be  advo- 
cates for  the  salubrity  of  Sullivan's  Island,  while  others  sliow 
that  several  diseases  have  originated  hero  as  well  as  in  the  city 
of  Charleston — as  cholera,  infantum  dysentery,  intermittent 
fever,  remittent  fever,  and  ycillow  fever."  In  speaking  of  the 
fever  of  1852  the  surgeon  remarks  : — "  The  conclusion  is  irre- 
sistible, that  yellow  fever  was  not  introduced  from  Castle 
Pinckney,  neither  fi-om  Charleston,  but  that  it  originated  on 
Sullivan's  Island." 

Dew  Point. — With  high  range  of  the  thermometer  in  the  low 
country  of  the  south,  humidity  and  a  high  dew-point  are  always 
associated.     This  is  the  case  in  Charleston  harbor.     The  me- 


teorological register  of  Fort 
this. 


Moultrie,  for  three  years,  shows 


Months. 
May, 
June, 
July, 

August,    . 
September 


AIEAN  OF  THE  DEW-POINT. 

1849.  1852. 

70.19  70.51 

75.36  72.94 

76.27  78.70 

77.69  75.77 

71.70  71.71 


185.1 
66.50 
71.40 
77.33 
75.32 
71.85 


"  Humidity  and  a  high  dew-point  play  an  important  part  in 
the  causation  of  febrile  diseases.  It  is  not  the  sole  cause,  but 
there  is  no  question  that  a  high  dew-point  is  fi  powerful  agent ; 
and  we  may  conclude,  in  the  language  of  another,  '  that  a  high 
dew-point  has  a  tendency  to  i)roduce  injurious  effects  on  the 
system  ;  that  it  is  often  found  to  exist  in  imhealthy  localities,  or 
duruig  pestilential  times  ;  and  that  it  must  assist  nuicli  in  the 
development  of  autumnal  and  periodic  fevers,  are  facts  which 
no  one  acqiiainted  with  the  subject  will  question.  We  may  go 
further,  and  afhrm  that  yellow  fever  never  prevails  in  a  place, 
endemically  or  epidemically,  unless  there  is  a  high  dew  point. 
Indeed,  heat,  humidity,  and  a  high  dew-])oint,  are  always  pres- 
ent in  summer,  as  is  evident  to  the  most  common  observer,  in 
the  rapidity  with  which  butcher's  meat  takes  on  the  putrefac- 
tive process  ;  and  the  humidity  of  the  climate  is  shown  by  the 
rapid  oxidation  of  all  articles  of  clothing,  the  rusting  of  keys  in 
one's  })ocket,  the  mildew  on  linen  clotliing,  and  the  injury  done 
to  cloth  generall}',  the  mould  on  leather,  <S:c."  Which  fact  in 
regard  to  yellow  fever  seems  to  be  well  proven  at  all  the  military 
posts  from  Fort  Brown  to  Key  West  on  the  Gulf  coast,  and  from 
the  southern  point  of  Florida  to  Norfolk  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 


m\ 


I  ! 


162 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Heatt  Rains. — These  were  <a  cause — predisposing  and  excit- 
ing— of  the  malignant  fever  of  1852,  both  in  Charleston  and 
Sullivan's  Island,  producing,  in  combination  with  otlx^r  causes, 
yellow  and  severe  bilious  fevers.  The  summer  of  this  year  was 
very  wet,  the  quantity  of  rain  in  each  month  being  as  follows  : — 

Sui.LivAN'8  Island.  CiiAiUiEsTON. 


Months. 

Moan  Toinp. 

Rain. 

Rain. 

May, 

73.80  Fahr. 

4.17  inches. 

4.22  inches. 

June, 

7G.61     " 

8.86      " 

5.18      " 

July, 

81.40    " 

5.43      " 

6.93      " 

August,     . 

79.79     " 

4.15      " 

4.21      " 

September, 

75.76    " 

11.70      " 

12.27      " 

Total  quantity,     . 

34.31  inches. 

32.81  inches. 

The  whole  quantity  for  the  year : — Sullivan's  Island,  51.26 
inches  ;  Charleston,  49,72  inches.  Mean  annual  temperature, 
66''  Fahrenheit. 

"Fevers  are  the  proper  endemics  of  Carolina,  and  occur 
oftener  than  any,  probably  than  all,  other  diseases.  These  are 
the  effects  of  its  warm,  moist  climate,  of  its  lov/  groiinds,  and 
stagnant  waters.  In  their  mildest  season,  they  assume  the  t^i^e 
of  intermittonts  ;  in  their  next  grade,  they  are  l)ilious  remit- 
tents ;  and,  under  particular  circumstances,  in  their  highest 
gTade,  constitute  j^ellow  fever." — Dr.  liamsay. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  ami  its  vidnit)). — "  We  have  kuo^ii  almost 
all  kinds  of  fever  to  originate  on  Sullivan's  Island — intermittent, 
remittent,  congestive  and  yellow  fever ;  but  the  most  usual  form 
of  fever  is  the  common  bilious  remittent.  Not  a  summer  passes 
without  it,  more  or  less  ;  sometimes  it  is  mild,  at  others  severe. 

"  Cholera  infantum  is  indigenous,  as  might  be  expected  from 
the  proximity  of  the  island  to  the  city  of  Charleston,  in  the  low 
country,  and  in  a  hot  climate,  Avitli  a  humid  atmosi^here  and 
high  dew-point. 

"Chronic  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  in  adidfcs  or  children,  are 
serious  complaints  in  summer,  either  in  the  city  or  on  the 
island,  and  such  patients  should  have  a  change  of  cKmate  with- 
out delay. 

"  Sullivan's  Island  is  an  improper  residence  for  ])ersons 
affected  with  chronic  bronchitis  or  phthisis  pulmonaHs.  In 
summer  it  is  too  hot,  and  the  wmds  are  too  bleak  and  damp  ; 
in  winter,  the  cold  and  strong  winds  render  it  a  very  unadvisa- 
ble  resort.  Chronic  rheumatism  and  neuralgic  pains  are  not 
often  benefited  by  a  residence  on  the  island,  but  the  contrary. 
The  climate,  both  winter  and  summer,  is  too  severe  for  persons 
.afliicted  with  these  complaints. 

"  From  the  situation  and  physical  characteristics  of  the  coun- 


V"  '.il 


MILITARY  POSTS  AND  CITIES — NEW  ORLEANS. 


163 


clies. 
51.26 


try  aroiind  Cliarlcston,  inclucliiif^  ►Sullivan':;  Islantl,  the  summer 
climate  miist  be  enervating,  and  most  persons  would  improve 
by  anniially  spending  July,  August  and  Se})tember  in  a  more 
elevated  region." 

"  We  have  considered  the  principal  apparent  causes  of  yellow 
fever  in  1852,  which  ap])ear  to  have  been  the  same  as  those  of 
previous  epidemics ;  and  they  are  :  1.  Intemperance  ;  2.  Fa- 
tigue and  exposure  ;  3.  Imperfect  ventilation  i  4.  High  solar 
heat ;  5.  Humidity  and  a  high  dew-point ;  0.  Defective  drain- 
age ;  7.  ]3ad  water  ;  8.  Heavy  rains." — Maii'td  Statistics  U.  S. 
Annij. 

St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  situated  facing  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  north 
latitude  29^  4H',  west  longitude  HI"  35',  has  a  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  70  ^  Fahrenlieit.  The  coldest  winter  month  (Janu- 
ary) had  a  mean  of  57°,  and  the  warmest  summer  month  (July) 
81"  Fahr.     Average  annual  fall  of  rain,  48  inches. 

"  Fort  Marion  is  in  the  city  of  St.  Augustine,  Avhich  is  situated 
on  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  being  distant  about  two  miles 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  site  of  the  city  is  slightly  elevat- 
ed, being  about  twelve  feet  above  the  level  of  the  i)onds  and 
marshes  in  the  vicinity.  The  adjacent  country  is  level  and 
generally  sandy,  some  parts  being  sufficiently  rich  in  calcareous 
and  vegetable  matter  to  produc(^  most  of  the  vegetables  culti- 
vated at  the  North.  Oranges  flourish  here  most  luxuriantly ; 
but,  in  the  early  part  of  1855,  all  the  groves  in  the  northern 
half  of  the  peninsula  were  wholly  destroyed  by  frost — an  occur- 
rence previously  unknown. 

"St.  Augustine  has  long  been  celebrated  as  a  winter  resi- 
dence for  jmlmonary  invalids  ;  but  the  city  itself  has  claims 
upon  the  traveller's  attention,  not  the  least  being  the  fact  that 
it  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  United  States.  The  fort  is  also  one 
of  the  oldest  in  the  country.  It  was  finished,  as  appears  by  its 
now  nearly  illegible  inscription,  in  1756,  in  the  reign  of  Ferdinand 
the  Sixth.  The  walls  consist  of  a  concretion  of  sea-shells  ob- 
tained from  quarries  in  xVnastasia  Island,  and  as  the  material, 
under  a  bombardment,  crumbles  away  without  suffering  frac- 
tures, the  fort,  duly  manned,  would  be  almost  impregnable. 

"  "J^his  post  has  been  at  all  times  justly  esteemed  for  its  salu- 
brity. Compared  with  the  average  mortality  of  southern  posts 
in  general,  this  station  is  found  to  exhibit  a  much  lower  ratio. 
It  is  seldom  that  diseases  of  a  malignant  character  appear  at 
St.  Augustine.  Toward  the  close  of  the  present  year  (183'J,) 
yellow  fever,  which  ravaged  the  principal  cities  of  our  Southern 
States,  made  its  api^earance  at  this  s^lation.  This  is  onljr  the 
second  time  that  this  epidemic  has  prevailed  in  this  city  within 


I 


-  k 


i 


irf 


silll  •  ■ 


I'll 

m 


m 


Iji;  ! 


1G4 


mn-UENCE   OF  CLIMATE. 


the  period  of  twonty  years  ;  while  ftt  Charh^ston,  we  are  told  by 
Prof.  Dickson,  that  in  twenty-four  years'  practice,  bnt  three 
have  passed  without  his  knowing  the  occurrence  of  the  yellow 
fever.  Ah  rep-ards  the  essential  cause  of  j'ellow  fever,  we  still 
remain  in  the  dark.  It  is  manifest,  however,  that  to  develop 
the  cause,  and  keep  up  its  action,  re(|iiires  a  hij^h  range  of 
atmospheric  temperature  ;  and  as  this  condition  seldom  obtains 
on  the  coast  of  Florida,  it  would  seem  to  aft'ord  an  ai)parent 
explanation  of  its  infrequent  occurrence  in  this  region.  At  Key 
West,  or  Thompson's  Island,  hov,  over,  which  is  tJie  hottest  and 
most  southern  station  in  Florida,  as  in  the  isl-md.s  generally  of 
the  West  Inches,  yellow  fever  has  jn-ovailed  with  much  mahg- 
nity." 

New  Ouleans,  La. — This  important  military  ]iost  and  com- 
mercial depot  is  situated  on  the  left  ])ank  of  the  Mississi})pi 
River,  distant  105  miles  by  the  channel  from  its  mouth,  and  80 
miles  in  a  southeast  course.  It  is  fifty  miles  ii-om  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  south  ;  14  miles  from  Lake  Borgne,  east ;  and  6  miles 
from  Lake  Pouchartrain,  north :  in  north  latitude  29^  57' ;  lon- 
gitude 90^  west  from  Greenwich,  and  13^  fi'om  Washington. 
Mean  annual  temperature  70^  Fahrenheit.  Tlic  coldest  winter 
month  (Jamaary,)  55*^ ;  the  warmest  summer  month  (July,)  83^. 
Annual  average  fall  of  rain,  50  inches. 

"  There  are  no  hills  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city,  being  built  on 
an  inclined  plane,  descending  gently  from  the  river  to  the  lakes. 
When  the  river  is  full,  the  streets  are  three  or  four  feet  below 
its  surface.  Inundations  are  prevented  by  a  dyke,  or  levee. 
The  well-water  of  the  city  is  not  used  either  for  washing 
or  for  culinary  purposes,  as  it  contains  the  muriates  of  lime, 
magnesia,  and  soda,  and  the  bi-carbonate  of  lime,  and  also 
iron  ;  ram  and  river  water  are  consequently  used  by  all. 

"  The  southwest  and  southeast  winds  prevail  during  the  five 
months  from  April  to  August,  and  the  northeast  in  September. 
It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  east-northeast  and  southeast 
winds  come  fi"om  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  over  an  immense  tract  of 
low  swamps,  and  that  the  prevalence  of  north  and  east  winds  in 
July,  August  and  September,  is  always  attended  with  the  epi- 
demic of  yellow  fever.  In  fact,  these  three  months  are  the  only 
ones  that  can  be  considered  as  proj^er  seasons  of  disease — that 
is,  the  cause  of  epidemic  yellow  fever  is  produced  during  those 
mouths.  Its  ravages  may,  and  do,  extend  into  October ;  but 
when  thera  has  been  no  epidemic  during  August  and  Sejjtem- 
ber,  strangers  are  not  as  liable  to  disease  in  October.  The 
yellow  fever  of  this  climate,  then,  may  be  traced  to  the  follow- 

1.  Low  stage  of  water  in  the  river. 


mix  combined  causes : 


}.  -i 


YELLOW  FEVEH. 


105 


five 
ruber, 
beast 
xct  of 
ids  in 
ic  opi- 
only 
I— tluit 
those 
;  but 
ptein- 
Tho 
ollow- 
river, 


leaving  its  banks,  with  tho  deposits  bro\;ght  from  tho  upper 
country,  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun  ;  '2.  Decomposition  of 
vegetable  matter  in  the  swamps  in  the  rear  of  the  city  ;  and,  3. 
The  ])rovalence  of  east  and  northeast  winds.  These  winds  come 
not  only  loaded  Avith  miasmata  from  the  swami)s  which  they  tra- 
verse, ^jut  are  cold,  and  tend  to  produce  chills,  reudoving  the 
system  more  liable  to  bo  impressed  Avith  other  causes  incident 
to  the  climate,  such  as  sudden  alternations  from  cold  showers 
to  a  burning  sun.  In  conlirmation  of  this  opinion,  it  is  remarked, 
that  a  contrary  state  of  things — to  wit,  high  stage  of  water  in 
tlie  river,  and  the  prevalence  of  southwest  and  west  winds, — 
are  not  attended  with  epidemic  fever." 

Yellow  Fever. 

Enetractffomtlie  Metlictil  S'ftthlics  l'.  Stdlf.t  Arnn/.    ('oMi[ii!oil  by  Surgeon  3.  P.  Moork, 
btalidiieil  lit  Four  liiinWN,  IVxns",  in  l^r)3. 

"It  may  be  asked  if  the  ycllov  fever  of  tho  United  States  is 
the  same  disease  as  tho  Jiehrc  aindriUn,  or,  as  it  is  more  fre- 
quently called,  t'o^^Vo  ^ir('(fo,  of  the  Mexicans?  There  can  be 
no  doubt  of  it.  It  is  tho  same  disease  us  the  yellow  fever  of 
Charleston,  S.  C,  of  New  Orleans,  and  Ponsacola,  I  ha-sdng 
seen  the  disease  in  these  cities  ;  in  tlio  late  ei)idemic  that  pre- 
vailed here  (Fort  Brown)  and  in  IVEatamoras  (on  the  opposite 
side  of  tho  Rio  Grande,)  tho  symptoms  were  too  evitlent  to 
admit  of  a  doubt. 

"  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  recent  wide-spread  epidemic, 
W'hicli  has  devastated  the  southwestern  States,  began  in  liio 
Janeiro  in  1850,  and  has  been  cree})ing  northward  e<'ch  succes- 
sive year  ;  m  other  words,  that  it  is  a  new  disease.  It  is 
probable  that  in  almost  every  country  in  which  this  disei^-se  has 
committed  its  ravages,  it  has  received  a  new  name.  From  its 
depredations  in  the  "\^'est  Indies,  it  has  been  called  the  St. 
Domingo,  Barbadocs  and  Jamaica  fevers  ;  on  the  Guinea  coast, 
and  adjacent  ports,  the  Bulam  fever ;  in  IBritish  India,  it  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  the  jungle  fever,  the  Hoogly  fever ; 
and  still  further  east,  by  that  of  tlie  Mai  do  Siam  ;  and  in  tho 
south  of  Spain,  the  Andalusian  pestilence.  In  the  present  dav- 
its more  common  name  is  YrUow  fever,  and,  v:\ien  tho  attack 
upon  new-comers  is  slight,  a'rJhnaling. 

"  From  its  appearing  in  diftercnt  parts  of  the  world,  and 
under  different  circximstances,  it  is  not  surprising  that  it  should 
often  be  accompanied  Avitli  a  diversity  of  symptoms.  It  is 
supposed  by  some  writers  that  the  cause  of  yellow  fever  and 
bilious  fevers  are  the  same — that  is,  it  proceeds  from  marsh 
miasmata.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  these  diseases  are  quite 
distinct,  and  arise  from  different  causes. 


166 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIJIATE. 


'*  The  question  of  contagion  is  a  very  important  one,  and  has 
occupied  the  attention  of  pliysiciuns  and  i)liilanthropists  for  a 
long  peiiod,  without  definitely  setthng  it ;  there  is  no  hesitation 
in  giving  a  decided  opinion  tliat  it  is  not.  llic  disease  is  of 
domestic  orif/in.  The  arguments  fc>r  contagion  are  opposed  by 
facts  ;  these  are  well  known  and  need  not  be  stated. 

"Setting  aside  the  vexed  t^uestion  of  qi'arantiw,  hospitals 
should  be  establislicd  in  healthy  situations  ;  all  sources  of 
noxious  eflluvia  should  bo  removed ;  and  by  correcting  such 
otiluvia,  when  known  to  exist,  by  appropiiate  fumigations,  and 
by  exclading  persons  not  exempt  from  the  disease  from  the 
infected  district.  These  and  such  like  eflbrts  should  be  made 
upon  the  Inst  appearance  of  any  epidemic."  This  writer  fur- 
ther remarks :  "  I  think  yellow  fever  a  pecuhar  and  distinct 
disease,  and  the  ]U'eeise  pathological  conditions  essential  to  it 
are  at  preseut  unknown  ;"  and  lurther,  "  Apart  from  the  epi- 
demic influence  on  num,  nothing  was  observed  remarkable  in 
the  animal  or  vegetable  kingdoms." 

Another  army  hiirgeon,  stationed  at  Fort  Moultrie,  Charleston 
harbor,  remarks  :  "Little  will  be  said  concerning  the  nature  of 
yellow  fever.  AVhen  the  disease  iirst  occurred  to  me,  it  was 
regarded  as  sui  (leneris — as  diilerent  from  all  other  southern 
fevers ;  but  it  must  bo  confessed  that  this  opinion  has  been 
considerably  moditied  ;  and,  at  the  present  time,  it  is  believed 
that  intermittent,  reuiittent,  continued  congestive,  and  yellow 
fevers  are  nearly  rt^lated,  if  not  niodihcations  of  the  same 
fever — all  being  southern  bilious  fevers — the  nervous  system  ii 
some,  and  the  blood  in  others,  being  pre-eminently  aft'ected. 
Whether  the  difiereiice  in  these  varieties  of  southern  fever,  in 
different  seasons  and  in  the  same  season,  depends  on  a  simple 
difference  of  intensity  in  the  ju'edisposing  and  exciting  causes 
with  the  same  materia  morlii ;  whether  different  causes  exist  at 
the  same,  developing  the  different  forms  of  fever  ;  or  w^hether 
there  is  a  blending  and  conversion  of  types,  as  is  manifested  by 
Dr.  Dickson — all  remains  to  be  determmed." 

Fort  Yuma,  Cal.,  situated  in  north  latitude  32°  32',  west  lon- 
gitude 114^  36',  is  elevated  350  feet  above  the  waters  of  tho 
Colorado  Eivcr.  The  mean  annual  temperature,  according  to 
the  Ai-my  Eccords,  is  74^  Fahrenheit.  The  coldest  month 
(January)  had  a  mean  of  56'°,  and  the  warmest  month  (July) 
92°  Fahr.  Average  annual  fall  of  rain,  4  inches,  being  the  least 
of  any  post  in  the  United  States. 

"  Fort  Yuma  is  situated  on  a  high  rocky  hill  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Colorado,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Gila,  and  eight}'- 
miles  from  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California.     The  Valley  of 


FORT  YUMA — SAN  DIEOO. 


1G7 


the  Colorntlo  avcragoB  seven  iiiilos  in  vvidtb,  and  ih  bounLleJ  on 
cither  side  by  rocky  barren  mountains  and  sand-hills,  -which 
separate  it  from  the  immense  dtserts  by  which  it  is  suiTounded. 
This  locality  is  noted  for  its  excessive  temperature  and  absence 
of  rain  ;  the  thermometer  occasionally  rising  to  IIG^.  Although 
such  is  the  official  record  of  meteorological  observations  at  this 
post,  it  appears  that  the  actual  temperature  is  even  more  exces- 
sive than  above  stated.  The  principal  number  of  cases  of 
diarrluua,  dysentery  and  scorbutis  re])orted  in  the  abstract  for 
1852  occuiT(!d  at  this  post,  the  men  being  for  the  time  destitute 
of  vegetables,  and  deprived  of  the  ordinary  necessaries  of  life." 

San  Dieoo,  Cal.,  situated  in  north  latitude  32"  42',  and  west 
longitude  117^  1-1',  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  02-^  Fahr. 
The  coldest  month  (January)  had  a  mean  of  52'^,  and  the 
■warmest  month  (August)  74^.  Annual  average  fall  of  rain,  10 
inches. 

"  The  mihtary  i)ost  at  San  Diego  is  situated  near  the  head  of 
a  valley,  perhaps  three  quarters  to  one  and  a  half  mile  in  Avidth, 
six  miles  distant  from  the  old  Presidio,  and  eight  miles  from 
the  sea-shore.  The  height  of  the  hills  and  table-land  on  either 
side  of  the  valley  is  about  250  feet.  Some  15  or  20  miles  to  the 
east  of  the  post  is  a  range  of  mountains  running  north  and 
south,  broken  in  places,  Avith  some  pretty  valleys  intervening, 
which  mountains  extend  over  a  distance  in  width  some  40 
miles,  and  bound  the  desert  on  the  Avest  pide  of  the  Rio  Colo- 
rado. 

"  The  diseases  which  have  occurred  at  this  post  have  not 
been  influenced ^jar^/c/i/fuZ/y  by  the  climate.  In  some  particular 
places  they  suifer  from  intermittant  and  bilious  fevers,  of  which 
many  die  ;  but  in  this  immediate  vicinity  a  case  of  intermittent 
or  remittent  fever  is  seldom  ever  seen,  unless  contracted  else- 
where." 


P'  •   ' 


Mvr 


u 


168  INFLUENCE  OF  CLIJilATE. 

Annual  Measurement  of  Rain 
At  the  different  Militauy  Stations  in  the  United  States. 

The  entire  amount  of  ^v'ater  falling  in  Rain  and  Snow  is  in  all 
cases  intended  to  be  included  in  the  summaries  given  in  the 
original  record,  and  of  wlii(?li  the  results  for  separate  years  are 
here  consolidated  to  determine  the  mean  for  a  series  of  years. 

Note. — For  Laciti.Jo  and  Longitude  of  tho  difr?rfut  Stations,  see  Meteorolo- 
gical Tdble  of  Temperatures,  pages  132,  141,  150  and  159. 


MiLITAET   STATI0X8. 


Rain,  &c.,  in  Inches  nud  IlunareUhs, 


Fort  Kent,  Maine,  . 
Hancock  I3arracks,  Maine,     . 
Fort  Sullivan,  Eastport,  " 
Fort  Preble,  Portland,    " 
Ft.  Constitu,  P'rtsni'th,  N.  H. 
Ft.  indep'dence,  Boston  Har., 
Watertown  Arsenal,  Mass.,     . 
Fort  Adams,  Newport,  It.  I.,  . 
Ft.  Trunvall,  N.  London,  Con, 
Ft.  Columbus,  N.  Y.  Harbor, 
Fort  Hamilton,  N,  Y.,    . 
West  Point,  N.  Y.  . 
Watevvliet  Arsenal,  N.  Y., 
Platts])urgli  Barracks,  N.  Y"., 
Madison  Barracks,  N.  Y., 
Fort  Ontario,  Oswego,  N.  Y. 
Fort  Niagara,  N.  Y. 
Buffalo  Barracks,  N.  Y. 
.yieghanv  Ar.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Carlisle  barracks.  Pa.,   . 
Ft.  MifJ.in,  near  Philadelphia, 
Ft.  McHenry,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Washington  City,  D.  C, 
Fort  Washington,  Md.,  . 
Ft.  Monroe,  near  Norfolk,  Va. 
Fort  Johnston,  N.  C,     . 
Ft.  Moultrie,  Charlci-.ton  Har., 
Augusta  Arsenal,  Ga.,    . 
Oglethorpe  Barracks,  Ga., 
Ft.  Marion,  St.  Augustine,  Fla. 
Fort  Pierce,  Fla.,    . 
Key  West,  Fla.,      . 
Fort  Myers,  Fla,,    . 
Fort  Brooke,  Fla., . 


Spring. 

5.4  G 

7.62 

8.88 

12.11 

9.03 

8.60 

10.75 

13.89 

10.99 

11.55 

11.69 

12.57 

8.66 

8.36 

9.94 

6.18 

6.87 

8.59 

9.38 

9.05 

12.97 

11.13 

10.45 

12.57 

9.77 

6.83 

9.89 

6.78 

13.45 

5.90 

11.13 

8.34 

11.02 

8.50 


Sum'cr. 

11.65 
11.92 
10.05 
10.28 

9.21: 

8.42' 
10.66 
11.44 
10.65 
11.33 
11.64 ! 
12.43 
10.34 1 
10.03 ' 
10.28 
7.63  i 
9.81: 
9.23; 
9.871 
9.67 ! 
12.62 
11.04 
10.43 
12.84 
15.08 
15.52 
17.45 
3.66 
23.50 
10.54 
26.25 
16.59 
32.15 
28.24 


Ant'inn. 

9.64 

9.95 

9.85 

11.93 

8.95 

9.27 

10.83 

13.66 

13.16 

10.30  1 

I    9.93  i 

10.74 : 

I   9.171 

'  10.05  I 

12.51 1 

9.77  i 

\   8.68^ 

13.54 1 

8.23! 

7.68! 
10.42 
10.. ^2 ' 
10.15 
10.22 
10.10 
16.32 '' 
10.06 : 

4.511 
!    7.21: 

9..56 
16.84 
15.35 
11.96  i 
10.63 ; 


Winter. 

9.71 

7.48 

10.61 

10.93 

8.38 

9.01 

9.83 

13.47 

10.98 

9.63 

10.39 

10.7n 

6.38 

4.9r 

8.10 

7.30 

6.41 

7.53 

7.48 

7.61 

9.26 

9.31 

10.07 

9.39 

10.17 

7.34 

7.52 

8.05 

9.17 

5.80 

8.76 

7.37 

8.06 

8.04 


Year. 

36.46 
36.97 
3i).39 
45.25 
35.57 
35.30 
42.07 
52.46 
45.69 
43.23 
43  05 
46.53 
34.55 
33.39 
39.78 
30.88 
31.77 
38.80 
34.96 
34.01 
45.27 
42.00 
41.20 
45.02 
45.18 
46.01 
44.92 
23.00 
53.33 
31.80 
;  62.98 
47.65 
G3.19 
55.57 


V 


\^ 


li-;''' 


•r> 


ANNUAL  MEASUEEMENT  OF  E.ON.  169 

Annuel  Measurement  of  Rain — Continued. 


52.46 


46.u3 
34.55 
33.89 
39.78 
30.88 
31.77 
138.80 
34.96 
34.01 
45.27 
42.00 
41.20 
45.02 
145.18 
146.01 
144.92 
23.00 
53.33 
31.80 
62.98 
47.65 
63.19 
55.57 


MiLiTABV  Stations. 


Fort  Meade,  Fla.,  . 

Cedar  Keys,  Fla.,  . 

Ft.  Barrancas,  Pensacola,  Fir 

Ft.  Mitcliell,  n'r  Moutg'ry,  Ala 

Mount  Vernon  Arsenal,  Ala, 

Fort  Wood,  La.,     . 

Fort  Pike,  La., 

New  Orleans  Barracks,  . 

Baton  Rouge,  La., , 

Fort  Jesup,  La., 

Fort  Smith,  Ark.,   . 

Fort  Towson,  Li.  Ter.,    . 

Fort  Washita,      " 

Fort  Gil)son,        " 

Tort  Arbuckle,     " 

Fort  Scott,  Kansas, 

Fcrt  Leavenworth,  Kansas, 

Jefferson  Barracks,  Mo., 

St.  Louis  Arsenal,  Mo.,  . 

Detroit  Barracks,  Mich., 

Fort  Gratiot, 

Fort  Mackinac,  " 

Fort  Brady, 

Fort  Howard,  " 

Fort  Winnebago,       " 

Fort  Crawford, 

Fort  Atkinson,  Iowa, 

Fort  Dcs  Moines,  " 

Fort  Dodge, 

Fort  Snelling,  Minn., 

Fort  Eipley, 

Fort  Kearny,  Neb., 

Fort  Laramie,  Dakota, 

Fox-t  B'^lknap,  Texas, 

Fort  Worth,  " 

Fort  Chadbourne,  " 

Fort  Graham,         " 

I'ort  r^roghan,        " 

San  Antonio,  " 

Fort  Brown,  '' 

Ringgold  Bar'ks, 

Fort  Mcintosh, 


(( 


llain,  Ac.,  in  Inches  nnd  Hundredths. 


Kprin;;. 

Smn'er. 

Aut'mn. 

Winter. 

Ye.ir. 

8.76 

20.68 

6.91 

3.87 

40.22 

4.10 

22.35 

11.94 

10.11 

48.50 

12.86 

18.69 

13.71 

11.72 

56.98 

17.60 

14.65 

4.61 

9.29  i 

46.15 

13.42 

18.84 

13.15 

18.09  i 

63.50 

16.13 

17.30 

15.60 

11.601 

60.63 

16.70 

23.61 

18.96 

12.65  1 

i  71.92 

11.29 

17.28 

9.62 

12.71 

50.90 

15.08 

19.14 

12.48 

15.40 ! 

1  62.10 

13.68 

10.94 

9.74 

11.49 

45.85 

12.48 

13.03 

9.93 

0.66 ! 

42.10 

15.55 

14.36 

12.23 

8.94 

51.08 

13.19 

11.27  10.78 

6.42  i 

1  41.66 

11.38 

9.68 

9.25 

C.15 

36.46 

8.15 

8.98 

8.90 

4.54 

30.57 

12.57 

16.3"^ 

8.39 

4.79 

42.12 

7.97 

12.24 

7.33 

2.75 

1  30.29 

10.56 

12.88 

8.02 

6.37 

!  37.83 

12.86 

14.09 

8.71 

6.29 

i  41.95 

8.51 

9.29 

7.41 

4.86: 

:  30.07 

8.02 

9.99 

8.86 

5.75 ' 

32.62 

4.67 

8.88 

7.01 

3.31 

:  23.87 

5.44 

9.97 

10-'' 

5.18: 

31.35 

9.00 

14.45 

7.84 

3.36  i 

34.65 

5.58 

11.46 

7.63 

2.821 

27.49 

7.63 

11.87 

7.90 

4.00 

31.40 

12.22 

20.43 

4.82 

2.27 

39.74 

8.86 

10.93 

4.90 

3.87 

26.56 

7.92 

8.15 

8.39 

3.06' 

27.32 

6.61 

10.92 

5.1  i 

1.92 

25.43 

6.31 

12.62 

8.42 

2.13 

29.48 

10.80 

12.05 

3.82 

1.31 

27.98 

13.68 

7.15 

12.00 

2.13 

35.00 

7.09 

6.31 

6.85 

1.75 

22.00 

14.50 

8.80 

9.49 

8.07 

40.86 

8.52 

10.46 

8.99 

3.91 

31.88 

11.98 

6.02 

9.77 

11.91 

40.58 

11.61 

7.80 

8.24 

8.91 

36.56 

8.63 

10.22 

7.57 

7.35 

i  33.77 

3.97 

9.26 

15.08 

5.34 

33.65 

4.49 

7.10 

6.31 

3.05 

20.95 

4.07 

7.33 

5  06 

2.20 

18.66 

1:1 


W 


170 


"U\ 


INFLUENCE  OF  CIJMATE. 
Annual  Measurement  of  Rain — Continued. 


MiLiTAEY  Stations. 

Rain,  &c.,  In  Inches  and  Hundredths. 

Sprinft 

Sum'cr. 

Aut'nin 

■\Vinter. 

Year. 

Fort  Duncan,  Texas, 

3.55 

9.91 

6.32 

2.42 

22.20 

Fort  luge, 

0.06 

11.06 

6.99 

3.88 

27.99 

Fort  Clarke, 

4.60 

8.53 

6.36 

2.31 

21.80 

Fort  Bliss  and  El  Paso, 

0.70 

3.56 

5.25 

1.70 

11.21 

Fort  Fillmore, 

0.75 

4.44 

3.30 

0.74 

9.23 

Albuquerque,  N.  M., 

1.10 

5.45 

2.07 

0.80 

9.42 

Santa  Fe, 

2.83 

8.90 

6.02 

2.08 

19.83 

Fort  Union  &  Las  Vegas,  N.M. 

2.47 

9.62 

5.12 

2.03 

19.24 

Fort  Massacnusetts,            " 

3.50 

5.38 

8.83 

2.83 

20.54 

Fort  Defiance, 

2.91 

6.41 

4.57 

2.65 

16.64 

San  Diego,  Cal.,  . 

2.74 

0.55 

1.24 

5.90 

10.43 

Fort  Yuma,   "         .         .         . 

0.27 

1.31 

0.86 

0.80 

3.24 

Monterey,      " 

4.43 

0.21 

1.65 

5.91 

12.20 

Fort  Miller,   "         .         .         . 

9.57 

0.02 

3.59 

11.34 

24.51 

San  Francisco,  Cal., 

8.81 

0.03 

3.37 

11.38 

23.59 

Benecia  Barracks,  Cal., . 

6.40 

0.01 

2.65 

7.56 

16.62 

Sacramento,               "     . 

9.02 

0.00 

3.74 

8.56 

21.32 

FortEeading,             "     . 

11.30 

0.39 

4.89 

12.44 

29.02 

Fort  Jones,                 "     . 

5.38 

0.89 

5.30 

5.20 

16.77 

Fort  Orford,  Oregon, 

19.12 

3.00 

19.60 

26.80 

68.52 

Dalles  of  Columbia,  Oregon,  . 

2.63 

0.42 

4.16 

7.11 

14.32 

Astoria,                            " 

60  00 

Fort  Vancouver,  W.  T.,  . 

'9'.28 

"6!23 

io!3b 

i9'.6'9 

45.50 

Fort  Steilacoom,      " 

11.19 

3.85 

15.20 

21.51 

51.75 

(( 
« 
« 
(( 
(( 
<< 
(( 


401 

40 

51 


EECAPITULATION. 

Annual  fall  of  Eain,  &c.,  in  tlie  Now  England  States,  41  inches. 

State  of  New  York,    30 
Middle  States, 
State  of  Ohio, 
Southern  States, 
S.W.  States  &  In.  Ter.  391 
Wesfm  States  &  Ter.  30 
Texas  &  Now  Mexico,  24,^- 
State  of  California,      18^ 
Oregon  it  "Wash.  Ter.  50 

Average  annual  fall  of  Eain,  &c.,  in  the  United  States,  36  inches. 

From  the  abovp  Army  Be  cord,  running  tln-ough  a  number  ot 
years,  it  appears  that  the  greatest  fall  of  rain  in  the  U.  States 
occurs  in  the  Southern  States  l)ordering  on  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  the  average  annual  fall  being  51  inches.    The 


(t 
« 
« 
« 

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(( 
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il 

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'WfV'' 


:NUAL  FALL  OP  RAIN. 


171 


next  greatest  fall  of  rain  and  snow  occurs  in  the  Nortliwestem 
States  and  Temtories  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  tlio 
average  annual  fall  being  50  iaclies,  aUhougb  immediately  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  sea-coast  and  near  Paget  Sound  (say  for  100 
miles  inland),  the  average  annual  fall  of  rain,  (fee,  will  amount 
to  56  inches  and  upwards — showing  a  singular  coincidence  in 
regard  to  these  two  extremes  of  territory,  one  receiving  its 
climatic  influence  from  the  Gulf  Stream  as  it  ascends  north- 
ward, and  the  other  fi-om  a  similar  cun'ont  of  water  and  air 
approaching  the  northwest  coast  from  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


;vr.,  :a 


^\ 


ri 


a 
a 
t( 

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ichea. 


Consolidated  Table, 

Exhibiting  the  annual  amount  of  Sicknops  and  Mortality  in  the  U.  States  Anny  * 
brought  down  to  January,  18G0. 


Reoions. 


1.  Coast  of  New  England, 

2.  Harbor  of  New  York, . 
8.  West  Point,  N.  Y., 

4.  North  Interior — East,  . 

5.  The  Great  Lakes, 

6.  North  Interior — West. 

7.  Middle  Atlantic  coast, 

8.  Middle  Interior — East, 
Newport  Barracks,  Ken., 
JciFcrson  Barracks  and  St.  Louis  Ai'senal, 
Middle  Interior — West, 
South  Atlantic  Coast,  . 
South  Literior — East,  . 

14.  South  Interior — West, 

15.  Atlantic  Coast  of  Florida, 

16.  Interior  and  Gulf  Coast  of  Florida, 

17.  Texas,  Southern  Frontier, 

18.  Texas,  Western  Frontier, 
10.  New  Mexico, 

20.  Cahfornia,  Southern,    . 

21.  California,  Northern,    . 

22.  Oregon  and  Washington, 

23.  Utah  Territory,    . 


9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 


I 


Ratio  per  1000  Men. 


Ticnted.      Died 


1,755 
3,181 
4,G19 
1,808 
2,183 
2,2(35 
2,336 
3,180 
2,692 
3,603 
2,622 
2,658 
2,089 
3,354 
3,515 
4,902 
3,580 
3,063 
2,590 
2,105 
2,784 
2,302 
1,845 


Average,  per  1,000, 

Note.— The  mortality  per  1,000  B'-it 
West  Indies,  143. 

*  Asiatic  cholera  and  gun-shot  wounds  excluded. 


8.8 
18.4 

4.0 
10.9 
13.1 
12.0 
11.1 
14.9 
29.3 
43.7 
22.4 
27.3 
40.5 
22.0 
24.0 
30.2 
49.6 
19.6 
18.5 
18.0 
25.6 

9.8 

8.2 


21.0 

tish  troops  in  Canada  is  20  ;  Jamaica, 


m 


I;  ^ 


PART    IX. 

CLIMATE   OF  THE  NORTHERN,  MIDDLE   AND 
WESTERN  STATES. 


Climate,  Topography,  and  Productions. 

New  EXGL.VND  States. — This  nortlieast  section  of  the  United 
States  lies  between  41'^  and  47°  north  latitude,  extending  from 
67°  to  73°  30'  west  longitude.  It  has  for  the  most  part  a  favored 
climate  as  regards  health  and  longevity,  although  along  the 
sea-coast,  when  northeast  winds  prevail,  cases  of  consumption 
are  very  prevalent. 

The  coldest  part  is  the  north  of  Maine,  where  the  mean 
annual  temperature  is  37°  Fahrenheit.  The  coldest  month 
being  January,  and  the  warmest  July.  The  average  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  seasons  in  this  region  are  as  follows  : — Spring 
35°,  Summer  G2°,  xiutumn  40°,  Winter  12°,  Fahr.  ;  the  mercury 
occasionally  getting  to  — 3^°  below  zero,  and  rising  to  90° 
above.  The  country  is  elevated,  and  mostly  covered  with  a 
dense  forest,  bordering  on  the  St.  John's  Eiver  and  its  tribu- 
taries. 

On  the  eastern  border  of  Maine,  at  Eastport,  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  43°  Fahr. :  the  mercury  sometimes  faUing  to  — G° 
below  zero,  and  rising  in  summer  to  85°  above.  This  post  lies 
facing  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the  temperature  being  modified  by 
the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  season  of  vegetation  in 
this  region  of  country  is  at  least  three  months  later  than  in 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

The  northwestern  bounds  of  New  England,  running  along  the 
parallel  of  45°  north  latitude,  extending  to  Lake  Champlain, 
embraces  a  fine  agricultural  section  of  country,  being  separated 
from  the  Eastern  Townships  of  Lower  Canada.  Vermont  is 
jiTstly  celebrated  for  a  healthy  climate  and  fruitful  soil.  The 
interior  of  the  country,  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  Connecticut 
Eiver,  embracing  the  northern  part  of  New  Hampshire,  is  much 
colder,  although  no  correct  data  can  be  obtained  of  its  precise 


1!l 


THE  GREEN  MOUNTAINS. 


173 


influence.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  northern  part 
of  Vermont  is  44'^  Fahr.  The  seasons  are  as  follows  : — Spring 
42°,  Summer  67"^,  Autumn  47^,  Winter  20'^  ;  the  mercury  occa- 
sionally falling  to  — 20^  below  zero  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Champliiin. 

The  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont  exercise  a  gi-eat  influence 
on  the  climate  of  this  region,  rising  from  3,000  to  4,000  feet  and 
upwards  above  Lake  Champlain.  They  are,  however,  for  the 
most  part  cultivable  to  their  summits.  The  following  table 
gives  the  altitude  of  the  several  peaks  and  passes  ; — 

GREEN  MOUNTAINS. 


KIcvation 

I'KAKH. 

above  th«  Sea. 
Fei^t. 

Parbks. 

Elcraiion  aboro  the  Sea. 
Feet. 

Chin,  Mansfield  Mt., 

.  4,348 

Lincoln, 

.  2,415 

Nose, 

.  4,044 

Granville, 

.  2,340 

S'th  Peak,  " 

.  3,882 

Peru,      . 

.  2,115 

Camel's  Hump, 

.  4,083 

Sherburne, 

.  1,882 

Jay  Peak, 

.  4,018 

Walden, 

.  1,615 

Shrewsbury  Peak, 

.  4,08() 

Mt.  Holley  (RaHroad,)  .  1,415 

Killington  Peak,    . 

.  3,924 

Iloxbury 

.     912 

Ascutney,  Windsor, 

.  3,320 

Williamstowi 

I,       .        .     908 

MEAN   TEMPERATURE 

AT  BURLINGTON 

,  VT. 

North  latitude,  44^ 

29'.     West  longitude  73^  11'. 

Moniha. 

Dcftroos  Falir. 

Months. 

r.air  ;a  Inclie.'i. 

January, 

.19.93 

January, . 

.  1.58 

February, 

.  20.4G 

February, 

.  1.52 

March,  . 

.  30.83 

March,    . 

.  1.96 

April,     . 

.  42.12 

April 

.  1.62 

May,      . 

.  55.10 

May, 

.  2.90 

June,     . 

.  64.80 

June, 

.  3.59 

July,      . 

.  69.00 

July, 

.  4.12 

August, . 

.  67.73 

August,   . 

.  2.51 

September,    . 

.  59.32 

September, 

.  2,95 

October, 

.  '47.40 

October,  . 

.  4.23 

November, 

.  39.39 

November, 

.  2.43 

December,     . 

.  23.69 

December, 

.  2.41 

Mean  Annual  Temp.,  .  44.74       Total  Inches,       .        .  31.82 

The  southern  portion  of  the  New  England  States,  including  a 
part  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut,  are  all 
alike  favored  with  a  healthy  and  delightful  cHmate  for  the  most 
part  of  the  year,  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Long  Island  Sound 


I 

1 


I 


■Mm 


174 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


washing  its  entire  southern  coast.  The  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture of  this  whole  stretch  of  country,  lying  parallel  to  the  41st 
degree  north  latitude,  may  be  given  as  is  found  to  exist  at 
Fort  Adamf),  near  Newport,  R.  I.  The  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture at  this  post  is  50^  Falir.  The  seasons  as  follows:— 
Spring  46^,  Summer  C9^  46',  Autumn  53°  56',  Winter  32°  ;  th« 
coldest  month  being  January,  and  the  warmest  month  July ; 
the  mercury  occasionally  faUing  to  3°  and  rising  to  90°  Fahr. 

The  varied  products  of  this  part  of  New  England  are  mostly 
consumed  at  home  ;  the  population  being  dense  and  actively 
employed  in  commerce  an4  manufactures.  Within  the  bounds 
of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Massachusetts,  along  the  sea- 
board, are  annually  built  a  large  number  of  vessels  of  different  • 
kinds,  giving  employment  to  great  numbers  of  landsmeu  and 
sailors.  The  fisheries  along  this  coast,  also,  are  important  and 
profitable — shad,  herring,  mackerel,  halibut,  lobsters  and  sal- 
mon being  annually  taken  in  largo  quantities.  The  resorts 
and  habits  of  the  finny  tribe  show  conclusively  that  they  are 
governed  by  the  influence  of  cool  and  healthy  waters,  perhaps 
as  much  so  as  men  and  the  inferior  animals  are  by  a  pure  and 
healthy  climate. 

The  average  annual  quantity  of  rain  and  snow  that  falls  m 
the  six  New  England  States  is  41  inches,  being  nearly  equally 
divided  between  the  different  seasons.  The  smallest  quantity, 
36  inches,  falls  in  the  northern  part  of  Maine,  and  the  largest 
quantity,  52  inches,  falls  at  Newport,  R.  I. 

Northeast  winds  and  storms  prevail  in  all  the  northern 
Atlantic  States,  pioducing  a  cool  and  damp  atmosphere,  being 
most  frequently  attended  by  drenching  rains,  which  usuaUy 
continue  for  several  days  in  succession.  This  is  considered  the 
most  unhealthy  wind  that  occurs,  often  producing  colds,  influ- 
enza, catarrh  affections,  and  pulmonary  complaints.  For 
Health  Statistics,  see  different  Militar}'  Posts,  Part  X. 

The  topography  of  New  England  presents  an  interesting 
feature  to  the  admirer  of  nature,  while  it  materially  affects  the 
temperature  where  mountain  ranges  and  peaks  predominate. 
The  Green  Monntaim  of  Vermont  and  the  White  Mountains  of 
New  Hampshire  have  grand  and  distinctive  features  ;  they  both 
tend  to  cool  the  atmosphere  of  the  suiTOunding  country,  afford- 


CLIMATIC  FK\TUBES. 


175 


ing  most  healthy  and  delightful  summer  resorts  for  invalids  and 
the  !-«ekers  of  pleasure. 

The  soil  and  climate  of  New  England,  although  not  well 
adapted  to  agriculture  in  general,  are  particularly  genial  to  the 
growth  of  timber.  "  However  rocky  and  barren  the  soil  may 
be,  if  it  is  not  too  precipitous,  it  is  always  covered  by  a  dense 
growth  of  timber  ;  and  every  hitle  crevice  in  the  rocks  affords 
sufficient  hold  for  some  gnarled  member  of  the  forest  to  fix  its 
roots  and  obtain  a  subsistence. 

"  It  appears  to  be  a  peculiarity  of  the  primary  soils  of  New 
England  that  the  pine,  the  elm,  the  maple,  the  beach,  and  the 
spruce,  grow  together  in  social  equality.  In  many  places  it 
would  have  been  difficult  to  find  out  which  of  these  varieties 
predominate.  In  height,  however,  lO  pines  towered  above  all 
the  others  ;  and  in  all  those  parts  oi  the  forest  which  had  been 
somewhat  recently  cleared  by  the  fires,  the  birch  was  Ijy  far  the 
most  common.  The  birch  is  a  rapid  grower,  but  it  soon  attains 
maturity  or  limit  of  gi'owth,  so  that  in  the  long  run  it  cannot 
compete  with  those  Avhich  ultimately  rise  to  a  greater  height, 
and,  overtopping  it,  shut  it  out  from  the  sun's  rays.  Thus,  in 
the  older  portions  of  the  forest,  few  birch  trees  are  seen.  It  is 
the  great  variety  of  trees  in  the  New  England  forests  which 
affords  such  a  gorgeous  spectacle  when  autumn  tinges  the 
leaves  with  so  many  brilliant  hues."  In  the  pine  forests  of  the 
State  of  Maine  innnense  forests  of  giant  pines  are  still  to  be 
found,  giving  profitable  employment  to  the  lumberman. 

"  The  apple  tree,  the  pear  tree,  the  cherry  tree,  and  some  other 
kinds  of  the  fruit-bcarmg  species  tlirive  in  favored  localities,  as 
v/ell  as  the  cranberry,  the  whortleberry,  and  other  small  fruits." 

"  The  sugar  m^ple,  which  is  peculiar  to  the  climate  of  the 
Northern  States  and  Canada,  jn'oduccs,  annually,  large  amounts 
of  maple  sugar.  The  sugar  is  obtained  from  the  trees  in 
March  and  April  by  making  incisic-ns  in  the  trunk.  The  sap, 
being  collected  in  wooden  troughs,  is  boiled  down  to  a  certain 
consistency,  after  which  it  crystallizes  on  cooling.  It  is  com- 
monly used  in  a  rough  and  uupurified  state,  and  though  retain- 
ing the  peculiar  flavor  of  the  maple,  is  far  from  1  icing  disagreeable. 
Large  quantities,  however,  are  pi.ivified  and  sold  at  a  remunerat- 
ing price ;  also,  converted  into  syru})  of  a  fine  flavor."  "  During 
the  collecting  season  parties  go  into  the  Avoods,  and  camp  out  for 
several  weeks,  when  the  process  of  bleeding  the  tre(;s  and  boiling 
down  the  sap  are  jointly  carried  on.  The  maple  is  often  seen 
growing  on  very  barren  soils  ;  its  trunk  is  seldom  more  than  a 
foot  and  a  half  in  diameter."    ji'he  timber  is  in  demand  for  many 


kinds  of  purposes,  beinj 
furniture. 


extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of 


wtmmmmti 


mmm 


176 


INFLUENCE  OP  CLIMATE. 


Meteorological  Observations  in  the  State  of  New  York, 
Giving  the   Mean   Annual   '^l^emperatitrb   and   Variations. 


Stations,  iScc. 
Albany, 
Aubui'n,     . 
Buffalo, 

Cauandaigua,    . 
Cazenovia, 
Clierry  Vallc}",  . 
Cliuton, 
Dolbi, 
Fishkill,     . 
Flatbush,  L.  I., . 
Fort  Echvarcl,     . 
Goshen, 
Hamilton, . 
Homer, 
Hudson,     . 
Ithaca, 

Jamaica,  L.  I.,  . 
Johnstown, 
Kinderhook, 
Kingston,  . 
Lansingburgh,  . 
Lowiston,  . 
Lowville,  . 
Maloue, 
Nowburgh, 
New  York  City, 
Ogdcnsburgh,   . 
Oswego,     . 
Oyster  Bay,  L.  I. 
Penn  Yan, 
Plattsburgh, 
Potsdam,  . 
Poughkeepsie,  . 
Iledhook,  , 
IXochestor, 
Salem,        .    ^     . 
Saratoga  Springs 
Schenectady, 
Syracuse,  . 
Troy,  .         . 

Ucica, 
West  Point, 


Altitude. 

Yearly  Mean.  ITlsh'st.  liow'st. 

Range. 

Latitudo. 

Foot. 

"  Fahr. 

°  Fahr, 

^  Fahr. 

"  Fahr. 

42"  31' 

130 

48.60 

97 

23 

120 

42^55' 

650 

46.62 

96 

14 

110 

42^53' 

620 

47.14 

92 

12 

104 

42^50' 

600 

45.73 

94 

11 

105 

42^55' 

43.65 

97 

28 

125 

42^48' 

1,335 

44.27 

98 

30 

128 

43^00' 

500 

45.96 

96 

24 

120 

42n6' 

1,384 

46.66 

93 

17 

110 

41°  34' 

42 

49.74 

96 

4 

100 

40^37' 

40 

51.62 

96 

4 

100 

43^13' 

45.08 

90 

18 

108 

41^20' 

425 

48.56 

98 

20 

128 

42^49' 

1,127 

45.00 

96 

34 

130 

42^38' 

1,096 

44.67 

95 

28 

123 

423  iry 

150 

48.00 

99 

24 

123 

42o27' 

417 

48.38 

98 

18 

116 

40^41' 

50.00 

100 

7 

107 

43^00' 

45.00 

96 

—30 

126 

42=22' 

125 

47.00 

100 

30 

130 

413  55' 

188 

49.37 

100 

20 

120 

42^47' 

30 

47.62 

100 

28 

128 

433  09' 

280 

47.88 

97 

6 

103 

430  47' 

800 

44.00 

100 

40 

140 

44o50' 

700 

43.54 

94 

—24 

118 

41o  39' 

150 

49.67 

100 

15 

115 

40=42' 

50 

51.00 

96 

10 

106 

44^43' 

280 

44.00 

92 

20 

112 

43=28' 

234 

46.42 

86 

18 

104 

40^50' 

50.80 

95 

3 

92 

■  2^42' 

750 

46.50 

95 

15 

110 

44^42' 

180 

44.17 

98 

20 

118 

44"  40' 

394 

43.61 

96 

34 

130 

41^41' 

50 

50.00 

100 

22 

122 

42'' 02' 

60 

48.36 

98 

-28 

126 

43°  08' 

520 

47.00 

98 

—  9 

107 

43°  15' 

600 

46.53 

98 

38 

136 

43°  06' 

960 

46.87 

90 

38 

128 

42°  48' 

46.82 

91 

16 

107 

43°  or 

400 

47.30 

94 

3 

97 

42°  43' 

50 

47.80 

98 

26 

124 

43°  06' 

173 

46.00 

97 

27 

124 

41°  23' 

167 

50.50 

100 

10 

110 

ffiul 


CLIMATE  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK. 


177 


Climate  of  tho  State  of  New  York. 

■  The  state  of  New  York,  lying  to  tlie  westward  of  tho  New 
England  States,  is  situated  between  40  '  30'  and  4:5''  north  lati- 
tude. "  It  extends  over  a  hundred  miles  along  the  sea-coast,  and 
stretches  to  the  Gr<'at  Lakes,  presenting  every  variety  of  surface, 
from  Al^/ine  peak ;  to  sandy  i)laius,  exposed  to  tlie  soft  breezes 
of  the  Atlantic  and  the  chilling  but  bracing  winds  of  tho  north, 
presenting  all  the  modifications  of  climate  which  these  varied 
cii'cumstances  can  produce.  The  blossoming  of  plants,  and 
other  harbingers  of  spring,  occur  from   two  to   three  weeks 


earlier  on  Long  Island,  and  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
than  in  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  the  State,  while  in 
the  latter,  the  first  frost  and  snow,  indicating  the  approach  of 
winter,  are  seen  nearly  a  month  sooner.  Tho  progress  of  vege- 
tation in  midsummer,  as  indicated  by  the  harvests,  is  found  to 
vary  but  little,  thus  indicating  tho  more  rapid  progress  of 
vegetation  in  tho  colder  sections  of  the  State,  and  an  approach 
to  the  short  and  hot  sunmiers  of  polar  climates." 

The  northern  section  of  the  State,  lying  between  Lake  Cham- 
plain  and  the  Piiver  St.  LaAvrence,  has  a  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture ranging  from  43"  to  44-*  Fahr.  ;  the  coldest  month  being 
Jifnuary,  and  the  warmest  mouth  July.  Tho  mean  of  the 
seasons  is  as  follows  : — Spring  42'-",  Summer  OT^,  Autumn  40-, 
Winter  20"^.  Tho  Adirondack  Mountains,  lying  mostly  in  tlie 
Counties  of  Clinton,  Essex,  and  Franldin,  have  an  altitude 
exceeding  the  Green  Mountams  of  Vermont ;  Mt.  Marcy,  the 
highest  peak,  being  elevated  5,407  feet  above  the  sea.  This 
high  and  mountainous  section  of  the  State,  extending  many 
miles  westward,  is  still  an  unbroken  forest,  being  extremely 

The  mercury  frequently  falls  to 
""      '      ■  of  130 


showing  a 


range 


cold  considering  its  latitude 

40"^  below  zero  and    rises   to   00^ 

degrees. 

The  middlo  section  of  the  State,  fi'om  All  any  westward,  is  fa- 
vored in  every  particular,  having  a  rich  soil  and  healthy  climate. 
Here  are  to  be  found  a  succession  of  ilourishing  cities  and  towns 
surpassing  almost  any  other  section  of  the  Union.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  at  tho  Dudley  Observatory,  Albany,  is  48  ' 
GO'  Fahr. ;  the  mei'cury  sometimes  falling  to  20"  below  Z(n-o,  and 
rising  to  98^^  above.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  seasons  is 
as  follov/s: — Spring  47'^,  Summer  70',  Autumn  50  \  "Winter  20' 
Fahr.  Tho  temperature  falls  as  you  ap})roach  Lake  Erie.  At 
liufFalo  the  seasons  range  as  follows  : — Spring  43"'.  Summer  67"', 
Autumn  48^,  Winter  27^  ;  the  mean  annual  temperature  being 
46^  45' ;  the  mercury  sometimes  falhng  to  zero  and  rising  to 
86°  above.  Indian  corn,  wheat  and  other  cereals  flourish  in 
this  whole  section  of  country,  v.hile  the  grasses  yield  in  great 


1?^ 


I 


Urn' 


'  w  El  1) 


■r 


If.' 


:4 


w 

M 

;'l!: 

•^'i': 


11 !! 


m 


178 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


almndance  the  most  nutritious  food  for  cattlo — butter  and 
eliceso  l)oing  produced  in  p;rcat  quantities.  Fruit  of  different 
kinds  also  Hourisli,  particularly  a})]ilcs,  tliey  being  largely 
cxjiorted,  as  well  as  converted  into  cidei". 

The  C\itsldll  Mountains,  and  the  Vallins  of  the  Hudson  and 
Mohawk,  are  tlu;  most  remai'kable  topographical  features  of 
this  part  of  the  State. 

A  late  writer,  in  speaking  (^f  tlio  soil  and  climate  of  Western 
New  York,  which  is  tlu^  garden  of  the  State,  remarks  : — "  Oak 
and  hickory  are  the  princi]ial  trees  in  th(>  forest,  where  the  soil 
is  the  most  suital)le  for  the  growth  of  wheat.  The  butternut 
and  the  walnut  are  only  sparingly  distributed  in  the  forests. 
In  other  parts  of  this  region,  where  the  subsoil  is  of  a  compact 
sand,  the  maple  and  the  beech  divide  the  land  betwixt  them. 
Maple  and  beech  land  is  not  so  good  for  wheat,  as  there  is 
usually  more  accumulaticm  of  vegetable  matter,  which  renders 
it  too  soft,  so  that  the  plants  are  more  liable  to  be  thrown  by 
the  spring  frosts,  and  tlie  crop  on  such  land  is  more  subject  to 
rust  and  mildew.  The  beech  and  maple  land,  however,  is  Avell 
adapted  for  spring  and  summer  crops,  such  as  Indian  corn, 
barley  and  potatoes.  Dr.  Lindley,  I  behove,  was  the  first  to 
suggest  that  the  distributic^n  of  forest  trees  over  particular  soils 
was  regulated  more  by  tlie  pliysical  condition  than  by  the 
chemical  composition  of  soils.  In  the  general  truth  of  this 
opinion  I  cpnte  concur,  and  it  is  anqjly  borne  out  in  the  facts 
which  I  have  just  stated  regarding  the  oak  and  hickory,  and 
the  beech  and  maple  soils,  inasmuch  as  the  adaptation  of  the 
first  to  winter  wheat,  and  the  last  to  spring  crops,  shows  that 
it  is  the  iihysical  condition  that  determines  the  fitness  of  the 
soil  for  cultivated  crops  ;  for  we  have  only  to  bear  in  inind  that 
winter  wheat,  barley,  oats  and  Indian  corn  are  identical  in 
chemical  composition." 

The  Southern  section  of  the  State,  below  the  "  Highlands," 
is  a  most  favored  spot.  Here,  and  on  Long  Island,  are 
annually  produced  the  cereals,  grasses,  early  vegetaljles,  and 
fruit  in  abundance,  most  of  which  is  taken  to  the  New  York 
market.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  City  of  New 
Y'ork  is  51"  ;  tlie  seasons  ranging  as  follows  : — Spring  48^  70', 
Summer  70^  10',  Autumn  54"  50',  Winter  31"  40' ;  the  mer*cury 
sometimes  falling  below  zero,  and  rising  to  96" ;  shoM  ing  a 
range  of  temperature  less  than  in  most  of  the  other  parts  of  the 
State. 

The  average  annual  fall  of  rain  and  snow  in  the  City  of  New 
Y'ork  is  44  inches  ;  Newburgh,  36  inches  ;  Albany,  41  inches ; 
Plattsburgh,  38  inches  ;  Utica,  40  inches ;  Syracuse,  33  inches  ; 
Rochester,  31  inches ;  Buffalo,  28  inches  ;  Lewiston,  23  inches. 


il,! 


■J' 


rilOGUESS  OF  THE  SEASONS  IN  NEW  YORK  STATE. 


179 


Tlic  iivtriif^fo  quantity  tlironghout  the  State,  30  inches.  In  the 
City  of  Now  York  about  12  inclies  I'alls  in  Spring,  12  in  Sum- 
mer, 10  in  Autumn,  and  10  in  AVinter. 

The  jn-evaih'uij;  winds  passing  over  this  State  are  very  varia- 
ble, although  w(;stcrly  and  northAvesterly  i)r('dominate.  "  One 
of  the  most  striking  results  of  the  observatitms  nyton  the  winds 
is  the  correspondence  between  their  dhvction  and  that  of  tlio 
valleys  in  which  the  stations  an^  located.  At  most  of  those  on 
the  Hudson,  northerly  and  soutluu'ly  winds  were  recorded  in 
the  greatest  number  ;  in  tlie  Mohawk  Valley,  easterly  and 
westerly  or  northwesterly  winds  ;  and  at  every  other  jilace,  the 
prcvaihng  direction  of  the  neighl)()ring  hills  and  valleys  was 
found  to  influence  that  of  the  surface  current.  Northeasterly 
winds  prevail  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State  along  the  sea- 
coast." 

T.UILE, 

Showing  tlio  progress  of  tlio  Seasons  in  tlio  Stat(!  of  New  York,  as  indicated  by 
tlie  oiieniug  of  the  Hudson  Kiver. 


Nuvimition  of  the  Iliidson  IJlver. 


Navigation  of  tlic  Hudson  Hivcr. 


Mar.  15. 
"     15. 

"     25. 
"    21. 


Yctr.  lu'Ljiiii. 

182G,  Feb.  20. 

1827,  Mar.  20. 

1828,  Feb.  8. 

1829,  April  1. 

1830,  " 
1831, 
1832, 
1833, 

1834,  Feb.  21. 

1835,  Mar.  25. 
1830,  April  4. 

1837,  Mar.  28. 

1838,  "  19. 

1839,  "  21. 

1840,  Feb.  21. 

1841,  Mar.  24. 

1842,  Feb.  4. 

1843,  April  13. 

1844,  Mar,  14. 

1845,  Feb.  24. 


KiiiU 

Dec. 


Jtin. 
Dec. 


.1. 

24. 

25. 

23. 

11. 

23. 

5. 
23. 
13. 
15. 
30. 

7. 
13. 
Nov.  25. 
Dec.  18. 

5. 
"   19. 
29, 

9. 
11. 

4. 


Nov 
Dec 


l>:iys(i|)'n  |  Vo.'ir.  l!<'i.'^n. 

300  1840,  Mar.  22. 

280  !  1847,  "  19. 

320 :  1848,  "   9. 

290  ;  1849,  Feb.  25. 

283  '  1850,  Mar.  10. 

209  :  1851,  Feb.  25. 

273  i  1852,  Mar.  28. 

207  1 1853,  "  22. 

297  18.54,  "  17. 

250  1 1855,  "  27. 

247  1 1850,  April  7. 

1857,  Mar.  18. 


KnilL'd.     I):iysiiirii 

Dec.  15.  208 


24. 
27. 
25. 
17. 
11. 


280 
293 
303 

208 
288 


Dill  not  close  tills  YV. 

Jan. 
Dec. 


Nov. 
Dec. 


200 
251 

272 
297 
270 

298 
240 

272 
282 


1858, 
1859, 
1800, 
1801, 
1802, 

1803,  April  2. 

1804,  Mar.  12. 

1805,  "  14. 


19. 
23. 

5. 

6. 

3. 


4. 

7. 
21. 
10. 
27. 
18. 
14. 


289 
205 
270 
240 
285 
275 
207 


Note. — The  earliest  date  on  whicli  the  Hudson  has  been  open  at  All)any,  was 
Feb.  4,  in  1843,  and  the  latest  April  lii,  in  1843.  Avcrat^e  time  of  openinjo:  about 
the  middle  of  March  ;  Average  time  of  closing  about  the  middle  of  December. 

THE   CLIMATE   OF   BUFFALO,   N.  Y., 

Lying  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie,  in  N.  Latitude,  42°  53' ;  W.  Longitude,  78'  58  ; 

Altitude  GOO  feet. 

From  certain  natural  causes,  no  doubt  produced  by  the  waters 


ti  ■ 


Ai 


^*^v 


m^^^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


iii 

z  m 


1.4 


1.6 


^ 


<^ 


/] 


'el 


/a 


e3 


-y  > 


*V.^v 


^ 


/^ 


o 


7 


fjn 


% 


€^z 


Q>, 


^ 


180 


INM.UENCE    OF  CLIMATE. 


of  Lake  Eiio,  the  Winters  are  less  severe,  the  Summers  less  hot, 
the  temperature,  night  and  day,  at  all  seasons,  more  equable, 
and  the  transitions  from  heat  to  cold  less  rapid  at  Buffalo  than 
at  any  other  locality  ■within  the  temperate  zone  of  the  United 
States,  as  wiU  be  seen  by  the  follovving  table  : — 

TRifPEnATUKR    OP    Al,BANT,     ROCIIESTETI,     BUfFALO,    Cl.EVELAXP,   DETROIT, 

Chicago,  and  St.  Paxil,  dukixo  the  i.ouii  iSEAscKs  cv  the  Yeak. 

Yearly 


Cities. 

Albany,  N.  Y., 
Eochcster,"  N.  Y., 
Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
Cleveland,  Ohio, 
Detroit,  Mich,, 
Chicago,  111.,   . 
St.  Paul,  Minn., 


Spring.    Sumnior. 

71" 

(57' 
OG" 
71^ 
67" 
08' 
70" 


46^ 
47" 
40^ 
45^ 
4G" 
4.5" 
45" 


itumn. 

Winter. 

Mean. 

Ran^(\ 

50" 

24" 

48" 

47" 

49^ 

27= 

47r 

42" 

48^ 

28° 

47" 

42" 

51" 

20" 

48r 

45" 

40' 

26" 

47' 

41" 

40' 

26" 

47" 

42" 

40" 

16" 

45" 

54" 

By  a  careful  examination  of  the  above  tabic,  it  will  be  seen 
that  during  the  Summer  months,  the  tem])eraturo  of  Buffalo  is 
from  2'-'  to  10^  cooler  than  that  of  any  other  point,  east,  south, 
or  west,  of  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie,  while  the  refreshing  and 
invigorating  lake  breeze  is  always  felt  both  night  and  day. 

The  Winter  Months  compare  favorably  with  Albany  and  all 
the  lake  ports.  The  thermometer  rarely  indicates  zero,  and 
the  mean  for  January,  1858,  was  20"  above  ;  the  usual  range 
during  the  year  being  from  0^  to  90'^  Fahrenheit ;  yet,  during 
extreme  hot  Summers  and  cold  Winters,  the  extreme  range  has 
been  as  high  as  104\ 

"  An  equally  important  fact,  is  the  gradual  transiuon  fi'om 
cold  to  heat,  and  from  heat  to  cold,  in  the  Sj^ring  and  Autumn 
months.  In  most  localities  south  the  temperatur(i  suddenly 
(ihanges  at  these  seasons,  showing  a  change  from  25"  to  50^. 
This  is  debihtating  to  the  constitution  and  gives  rise  to  dis- 
eases, almost  as  fatal  as  contagion,  wliich  are  unknown  here. 

"  The  equableness  of  the  temjiorature  of  Buffalo  is  '>„'ing  to 
tlio  prevailing  direction  of  the  winds,  and  the  fact  that  the  lakes 
are  never  completely  frozen  over.  We  learn  from  Mr.  Ives,  the 
Librarian  of  the  Young  Men's  Association,  that  of  2,100  obser- 
vations of  the  course  of  the  winds  in  1858-9,  from  eight  })oints 
of  the  compass,  780,  or  37  per  cent,  of  the  winds  were  from  the 
southwest,  or  Lake  Eiie.  Of  860  observations  nuide  in  the 
months  of  November,  December,  January,  and  Fcbniary  of  the 
same  years,  57  per  cent,  were  from  the  southwest,  west,  and 


*  Tho  tcmi)oratnre  of  Rochostor  and  tlio  Burroundinp  country  is  favorably 
modiliod  by  tlio  wo  tors  of  Lako  Ontario ;  honco  its  adaptation  to  tlio  growth  of 
ccroala  and  fruit  of  almost  ovory  description. 


CLIMiTE   OF  THE    MIDDLE   STATES. 


181 


northwest,  or  from  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.  The  remainder, 
43  per  cent.,  were  about  equal]}'  divided  Ixtwccn  the  oth  >r  five 
points  of  the  compass.  In  other  words,  most  of  the  "Winter 
winds  are  south  and  southwest,  and  most  of  the  Summer  winds 
are  west  and  northwest.  The  Meteorokigical  Eeo;ister  for  the 
winter  months  of  1859  shows  the  following  : — West  v/ind,  12 
days  ;  northwest,  5  days  ;  north,  0  daj-s  ;  northeast,  11  days  ; 
east,  7  days  ;  southeast,  4  days  ;  south  10  days  ;  southwest,  28 
days ;  showing  that  the  northerly  winds  in  winter  compare 
with  the  southerly  winds  as  G  to  14.  There  is  an  average  of  a 
little  more  than  one  day  to  a  month  of  strictly  north  Avind. 

"  Otir  attention  has  been  called  to  another  fact,  illustrating 
the  superiority  of  the  chmate  of  this  vicinity.  It  is  well  known 
among  professional  culturists,  that  the  flavor  of  fruit,  and  its 
perfection,  is,  perhaps,  the  most  delicate  and  satisfactory  test 
for  health ;  and  it  is  also  known  that  the  fruit  produced  in 
localities  protected  oai  the  north,  northeast,  and  northwest,  by 
the  never-freezing  waters  of  Lake  Ontario,  which  temper  the 
severe  northern  winds,  and  shielded  by  the  Alleghany  ridge 
from  devastating  storms,  enjoj'S  a  world-wide  reputation  for 
richness  of  flavor.  Fruit  grown  south  of  the  lakes  is  of  an 
inferior  quality  and  cannot  be  eaten  with  impunity. 

"  There  are  other  interesting  facts,"  saj-s  the  above  writer, 
"  in  this  connection  to  which  it  would  be  pleasant  to  a-llude. 
Our  city  is  pre-eminently  the  residence  of  healthy,  vigorous, 
working  men.  Labor  is  actiicdb/  icortli  iircniy  pir  cent,  more  here 
than  ill  mamifacturing  ciV/cs-  exposed  to  the  south  and  southicest  hot, 
dry  winds  of  summer,  and  which  are  not  cooled  hy  any  large  body 
of  ivater" 

Climate  of  the  Middle  States. 


The  Middle  States,  lying  southwest  of  New  York,  are  com- 
prised of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware  a?id  Maryland. 
Pennsylvania,  extending  the  niost  northwardly,  is  bounded  by 
42^  N.  Latitude  ;  and  Maryland,  the  most  southwardly,  is 
bounded  by  38^  N.  Latitude  on  its  eastern  hmits.  This  section 
of  country  extends  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  Lake  Erie,  on 
the  western  confines  of  Pennsylvania,  80^  40'  W.  Long.  On 
the  north  it  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  from  47"  to  48° 
Frhrenheit.  The  mean  of  the  seasons  is  about  as  follows  : — 
Spring  45^  Summer  67^\  Autumn  48^,  Winter  27  Fahr.  The 
Alleghany  range  of  mountains  extend  through  Pennsylvania 
and  Mar'yland,  lowering  the  temperature  in  some  elevated 
places  VvA-y  materially.  This  jiortion  of  the  States  is  mostly 
covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of  timber  of  difi'ereut  kinds,  such 


182 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


as  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  oalc,  maple,  beech,  chestnut,  walnut, 
&c. 

The  middle  section,  in  the  vicinity  of  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  has 
a  mean  annual  temperature  of  50^  Fahrenheit.  The  seasons 
are  as  follows : — »o^/iing  49^,  Summer  70^,  Autumn  50°,  Winter 
29°.  January  is  usually  the  coldest  month,  and  July  the 
warmest.  Indian  corn,  wheat,  rve,  and  oats,  together  with 
nutritious  grasses,  vegetables,  and  fruit  of  different  kinds, 
flourish  in  this  favored  section  of  country — Pennsylvania  being 
one  of  the  richest  agricultural  and  mineral  States  in  the  Union, 
while  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  are  both  justly  celebrated  for 
producing  delicious  peaches,  strawberries,  cranberries,  &c., 
together  with  most  kinds  of  vegetables  which  find  a  ready  sale 
in  the  Philadelphia  and  New  York  markets. 

The  southern  section  of  the  Middle  States  luvs  a  mean  tem- 
perature of  58°  Fahr.  The  seasons  are  as  follows  :-  -Spring  58°, 
Summer  7C°,  Autumn  59°,  Winter  37°.  The  southern  portion  of 
Maryland,  lying  on  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  is  a  level,  sandy  section 
of  country,  producing  Indian  com,  wheat,  tobacco  and  sweet 
potatoes.  The  country  here  change ,  materially  from  that  por- 
tion lying  above  Mason  and  Dixon's  Une,  or  the  north  boundary 
of  Maryland  bordering  on  Pennsylvania. 

The  average  annual  fall  of  rain  in  the  Middle  States  is  40 
inches,  the  largest  quantity  falling  near  the  sea-board  or  in  the 
vicinity  of  Chesaj)eake  and  Delaware  Bays.  At  Philadelphia, 
45  inches  is  the  usual  annual  fall,  while  at  Pittsburgh  but  35 
inches  usually  fall.  In  both  instances  the  quantity  is  nearly 
divided  between  the  four  seasons. 

Intermittent  and  other  fevers  prevail  in  the  southeast  part  of 
this  region,  in  the  vicinity  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  while  the  climate 
found  on  the  sea-shore,  from  New  Jersey  to  Viiginia,  is  cele- 
brated for  its  health-restoring  and  invigorating  quahties. 

Climate  of  the  "Western  States. 

This  healthy  and  fertile  section  of  the  Uuiou  possesses  great 
advantages  as  regards  climate  and  soil,  having  all  the  elements 
that  tend  to  increase  ^7ealth,  knowledge,  and  refinement.  It 
embraces  the  States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  nnd  a  por- 
tion of  the  Territori(^s  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  where  is 
fou7id  about  the  same  mean  annual  temperature.  Lying  in  the 
middle  of  the  Temperate  Zone  and  near  the  centre  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  it  is  susceptible  of  sustaining  a  vast  popula- 
tion. Lakes  Erie  and  Michigan  lie  on  the  north,  the  Ohio 
Eivcr  on  its  south  border,  and  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri 


CLIMATE  OF  THE  WESTEEN  STATES. 


183 


Bivers  on  the  west ;  affording  direct  communication  by  lake, 
river,  and  caual,  witli  every  part  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  ranges  from  4G^  on  the  north- 
ern confines  of  Illinois  and  Iowa,  to  54°  Fahr.  in  southern 
Illinois,  running  through  Gi  degrees  of  latitude.  Here  is  the 
gi'eatest  yielJ.  of  Indian  corn  and  wheat  of  any  other  section  of 
the  Union. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Chicago,  lU.,  is  47°  Fahr. 
The  seasons  arc  as  follows  : — Sjiring  45°,  Summer  68°, 
Autumn  49^',  Winter  2G^  Fahr.  ;  the  temperature  being  modi- 
fied by  the  waters  of  Lake  Michigan.  This  favored  city  lying 
near  the  head  of  the  lake,  is  one  of  the  greatest  grain  and  lum- 
ber markets  in  the  world,  having  a  water  commiinication  with 
the  Atlantic  Oceau  by  means  of  the  Lakes  and  St.  Lawrence 
Elver  ;  and  Avitli  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  by  means  of  canal  and 
river  navigation.  The  system  of  railroads  also  centring  here 
aifords  altogether  unrivalled  facilities  for  transhipping  the  pro- 
ducts of  this  whole  immense  region  of  fertile  country. 

The  southern  portions  of  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois  are  oil 
alike  favored  by  a  good  climate  and  rich  soil ;  the  mean  annual 
temperature  ranging  from  Ul,°  to  55°  Fahrenheit.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  of  Cincinnati  is  55°  Fahr.  The  seasons 
are  as  follows  : — Spring  54°,  Summer  73°,  Autumn  53°,  "Winter 
33°  Fahr.  January  is  the  coldest,  and  July  the  hottest  month  ; 
the  mercur}^  occasionally  falling  to  zero  and  rising  to  9G°  Fahr. 
Average  annual  fall  of  rain,  42  inches.  Here  Indian  corn,  the 
grape  of  different  kinds,  and  most  of  the  cereals  flourish  in 
great  perfection.  No  portion  of  the  Union  is  richer  or  more 
favored  than  the  Valley  of  the  Ohio,  riiuning  nearly  cast  and 
west  for  near  one  thousand  miles. 

The  grasses  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  lUiuois,  and  Iowa,  -upply  food 
for  great  quantities  of  cattle — the  prairie  lands,  '/l  pariicular, 
affortling  good  pasturage.  Tlie  eastern  markets  are  to  a  great 
extent  suppKed  with  beef  cattle  from  this  section. 

Ohio. — In  order  to  show  the  gi'cat  amount  of  agricultural 
products  annually  raised  in  the  Valley  of  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi, compared  to  the  Canadas,  we  extract  the  following  inter- 
esting summary : — 


184 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


•'The  northern  half  of  the  State  of  Ohio  and  the  eastern 
borders  are  best  suited  for  the  growth  of  Avheat ;  the  southern 
for  Indian  corn,  tobacco,  and  for  grass.  There  is  comparatively 
little  alluvial  land  along  the  Ohio,  as  it  has  cut  a  deep  channel 
out  of  the  table-land,  and,  a  already  observed,  the  whole 
country  on  both  sides  is  broken  into  hillocks.  A  surface  so 
irrogiilar,  being  less  suited  for  cultivating  on  a  large  scale, 
naturally  became  occupied  with  small  pi-oprietors,  who  usually 
plant  crops,  such  as  tobacco  and  vines,  which  require  more 
hand  labor  than  those  that  are  more  generally  raised.  The 
farms  are  larger  on  the  more  level  and  fertile  description  of 
lands." 

"  There  is  little  imreclaimable  land  in  Ohio,  though  a  large 
proportion  is  still  in  wood.  This  State  is  about  200  miles  in 
length,  and  nearly  as  many  in  breadth  ;  the  annual  temperature 
varying  from  4S'-',  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie,  to  54^  Fahren- 
heit, extending  south  towards  the  Ohio  River.  It  covers  an 
area  of  39,961  square  miles,  or  25,576,960  acres,  of  which 
9,851,493  were  reclaimed  in  1850. 

"  To  show  the  ]iarticular  direction  that  agricultural  produc- 
tion takes  nortii  and  south  of  the  Lakes  the  statistics  of  Ohio 
may  be  compared  with  those  oi:  the  Canadas.  In  1851  there 
were  7,300,839  acres  of  reclaimed  land  in  the  Canadas  out  of 
155,188,425  acres.  The  population  of  the  Canadas  Avas  then 
1,842,265  ;  of  Ohio,  1,980,427.  The  amoiuit  of  their-  chief  pro- 
ducts were  : — 

Products.  Ohio.        Canada. 

r.iisliols  .t-e.  r.iishel?,  &i: 

Wheat 14,487,;?ol  l(),tr)r),94(! 

Other  Cereals,  etc.  lo,981,l!)l  28,(>o2,301 
Indian  Corn,  .  .  59,078,09.')  2.039,544 
Sheep a,942,929    1,507,849 

The  Staiie  of  Ohio,  't ;  ppei;rs  from  the  above  table,  raises  a 
gi-eater  amount  of  agricultuvi'  produce  than  the  whole  of  the 
Canadas,  and  in  all  probabihty  it  v;ill  continue  to  do  so  for 
many  years  to  come.  The  statistics  indicate  the  prominent 
place  that  Indian  corn-  occupies  in  the  productions  of  Ohio, 
and  the  small  quantity  grown  in  the  Canadas ;  conclusively 
going  to  show  that  the  climate  of  the  former  section  of  country 
is  better  adapted  b}'  nature  to  the  above  important  production ; 
so  in  regard  to  tobacco. 


Products. 

Ohio. 

Canada. 

I.hs. 

l.bM. 

Butter,.    .     . 

.  84,449,:579 

25,013,407 

Clioose,     .     . 

.  20,819,543 

2,737,790 

Tobiicco,   .     . 

.  10,455,449 

1,253,128 

Maple  Sugar, 

.    4,588,309 

9,772,189 

Wool,  .    .     . 

.  10,190,371 

4,130,740 

I 


*  In  Canada  East,  where  the  thermouKitcr  rnnpes  telow  40°  Fahr.,  mean 
annual  temperature,  the  crop  of  corn  and  most  of  the  cereals  ceaso  to  be  culti- 
vuted. 


METEOROL  /JICiVL  OBSEBVATIONS. 


185 


TABLE  OF  METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS  AT  COLUJIPUS,  OHIO. 

Lat,  39°  57'  N.  ;  Long.,  83°  3'  W.    Altitude,  740  feet  above  tho  Atlantic  Ocean. 

By  J.  B.  Ilicii.VRn. 


Months. 

1857. 

January,     . 
February,  . 
March, 
April, . 
May,  . 
June,  . 
Jvily,  . 
August, 
September, 
October, 
November, 
December, 

Annual  mean, 


TlierniomoTer. 

I?ain, 

Mean,  "  Falir. 

Inches 

.    21.0 

1.3G 

.    43.2 

2.00 

.    39.3 

1.30 

.     43.9 

2.51 

.     59.7 

5.50 

.     70.4 

4.75 

.    74.2 

3.24 

.     73.7 

3.58 

.     G9.7 

2.12 

.     54.5 

4.84 

.     41.4 

0.35 

.    41.0 

3.54 

r;-~ 


1.7 


41.75 


Snow, 
Inches. 

m 
i. 

4 
33 


3i 


23^ 


Note. — The  total  quantity  of  moisture,  including  2;)o  inches  melted  snow,  was 
41.75  inches,  l)eing  l.y.'  inches  above  the  average  (luantity. 


I' 


From  the  Ohio  to  the  Lakes,  extending  westward  to  the  Eocky 
Mountains,  tho  advantage  of  free  labor  is  fully  exomjilitied  by  tho 
show  of  an  increase  of  industry  and  of  all  the  elements  of  edu- 
cation, which  tend  to  make  a  nation  wealthy  and  happy.  Here 
freedom  has  her  favorite  abode,  made  sacred  by  Ijonds  which 
no  legislation  can  disturb  without  sacrificing  the  best  interests 
of  the  community.  The  rapid  growth  in  population  and  wealth 
of  this  portion  of  the  Union  is  without  precedent.  Already 
does  it  assume  gigantic  proportions,  which  is,  no  doubt,  soon 
destined  to  exercise  a  govcruing  influence  in  the  political  ati'aii'S 
of  the  Great  EepubUc  of  modern  times.  Already  has  the  centre 
of  popr^ation  of  the  Union  crossed  the  Alleghany  chain,  and 
fixed  the  initial  point  near  Columbus,  Ohio,  near  north  latitude 
40^,  the  climate  here  being  of  the  most  favored  character,  rang- 
ing in  the  vicinity  of  51^  Fahrenheit,  yearly  mean. 

When  the  east  and  tlie  west,  extending  from  ocean  to  ocean, 
are  united  by  a  continiious  railroad  and  line  of  settlements, 
ranning  along  the  most  favored  temperature,  then  will  tho  sway 
of  ]iower  be  found  near  the  centre  of  the  Great  Mississippi 
Valley,  capable  of  sustaining  tens  of  millions  of  freemen,  and 
at  tho  same  time  of  aftbrding  a  surplus  of  food  for  less  favored 
sections  of  tho  world. 


■m 


'  @   I 


ill'  ] 


186 


INFLUENCE  OF  CTJMATE. 


Climate  of  the  Northwestern  States  and  Territories. 

This  section  of  the  United  States,  lying  partly  in  the  Basin 
of  the  Great  Lakes  and  partly  in  the  u^^per  part  of  the  Valley 
of  the  Mississippi,  embraces  tho  States  of  Michigan,  "Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  and  the  Ten-itories  of  Dakota  and  Montana, 
extending  westward  to  the  Rocky  MountaiiiS.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Great  Lakes  of  America  and  the  49th 
parallel  of  latitude,  dividing  it  from  tho  British  i^ossessions  on 
the  north. 

The  extremes  of  mean  annual  temperature  are  from  38°  to 
48°  Fahrenheit.  The  coldest  post  on  record  is  Fort  Eipley, 
Minn.,  in  "N".  Lat.  46°  19',  the  mean  annual  temperature  being 
39°  30'.  The  seasons  are  as  follows  : — Spring  39°  33',  Summer 
G5°,  Autumn  48^  Winter  10°  Fahr.  The  coldest  month  is 
January,  and  the  warmest  mouth  July ;  tho  extremes  being 
from  36  degrees  below  to  90  degrees  above  zero.  Average 
annual  fall  of  rain,  30  inches. 

The  military  posts  on  tho  line  of  the  northera  frontier  are 
Detroit,  Fort  Gratiot,  Mackinac,  Fort  Brady  (Sault  St.  Marie), 
and  Fort  Wilkius  (Copper  Harbor),  all  being  influenced  more 
or  less  by  the  chmate  pecuUar  to  the  Great  Lakes.  The  mean 
annual  tcmiierature  of  the  three  latter  stations  is  about  40° 
Fahr.,  or  that  of  Quebec,  Can.,  and  Houlton,  Maine..  Fort 
"Wilkins,  in  N.  Lat.  47°  30',  lies  on  Keweenaw  Point,  jutting  out 
into  Lake  Superior,  being  mostly  suiTOunded  by  water.  The 
mean  of  the  seasons  are  as  follows  : — Spring  38°  47',  Summer 
60°  80',  Autumn  43°,  Winter  22°  ;  mean  yearly  temperature 
41°  Fahr.  This  post  furnishes  good  data  for  the  temperature 
prevailing  along  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  one  of  the 
largest  and  purest  bodies  of  fresh  water  on  the  face  of  tho 
globe. 

The  country  north  and  west  of  Fort  Eipley,  sitiiated  on  the 
Upper  Mississippi,  is  mostly  uninhabited  except  by  Indians. 
This  section  abounds  in  streams  and  lakes  of  pure  water, 
abounding  in  fish  of  dift'crcnt  kinds.  The  Piod  Eiver  of  the 
North,  which  drains  a  portion  of  Minnesota  and  Dakota,  ia 
bounded  on  both  sides  by  a  fine  section  of  country,  here  pro- 
ducing wheat  and  other  kinds  of  grain  and  vegetables  in  abund- 
ance, the  climate  being  remarkably  healthy  and  in\igorating. 


CROSSING  THE  PLAINS. 


187 


The  southern  and  middle  portions  of  the  States  of  Micliigau, 
Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  are  very  similar  in  their  temperature 
and  agricultural  productions,  producing  large  crops  of  wheat  and 
other  cereals,  as  Avell  as  grasses  of  different  kinds ;  this  whole 
region  being  avcII  adapted  to  the  raising  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 
hogs.  From  Eacine  and  Milwaukee  Avest  to  Janesville  and 
Madison,  and  thence  to  the  Upper  Mississippi,  the  lands  are 
very  producti  ve,  and  proxitablv  tilled  by  American  and  European 
settlers.  The  si:)ring  and  summer  months  are  warmer  in  the 
same  latitude  as  you  approach  the  Mississippi  Kiver.  The 
same  Avill  hold  good  in  reference  to  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  in  a  higher 
latitude  ;  thus  rendering  vegetation  earlier  on  the  Mississippi 
than  in  ilie  vicinity  of  the  Great  Lakes.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  of  Omailv  City,  Nebraska,  situated  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Missouri  Eiver,  in  N.  latitude  41},^,  is  49.28°  Fahr. ; 
the  Spring  49.28  ^  Summer  74^  Autumn  Sf^,  Winter  22^;  the 
Summer  months  being  7  degrees  warmer  than  Milwaukee,  and 
4  degrees  warmer  than  tlie  City  of  New  York,  having  the  Sum- 
mer temperature  of  Baltimore,  Md. ;  the  Avinter  temperatui'e 
being  about  the  same  as  Burlington,  Vermont. 

Crossing  the  Pl.iins. 

In  his  last  letter  from  Denver,  Colorado,  Mr.  Bowles,  of  the 
Springfield  Ilej)ubhcau,  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  soil,  cHiuate,  etc.,  along  the  route  of  the  Unimi 
Fadfic  Bailroad : 

"  The  Platte  RiA'er  is  a  broad,  shallow  but  swift  stream,  fur- 
nishing abundant  good  Avatcr  for  drinking  and  for  limited  irri- 
gation, but  offering  no  possibilities  of  naA'igation — not  even  for 
ferriage.  When  it  is  too  swift  and  strong  for  fording,  it  must 
hi  let  alone,  and  a  route  on  either  shore  kept  to,  or  the  falling 
waters  Avaited  for.  The  soil  of  the  valley  and  of  the  plains, 
which  it  crosses,  is  not  by  any  means  mere  sand,  but  rather  a 
tough,  cold,  sandy  loam,  with  an  admixtv-ve  of  clay.  It  is  too 
cold  and  dry  for  corn  and  vegetables.  Wheat  and  barley  may 
be  raised  on  its  best  acres,  with  the  help  sometimes  of  a  simple 
irrigation  ;  but  the  pasture  is  its  manifest  destiny  and  use. 
There  is  a  steady,  imperceptible  rise  from  the  Missouri  to  the 
Kocky  Mountains ;  half  Avay,  avo  get  above  the  dew  falling 
point ;  and  here  at  Denver,  at  the  base  of  the  mountains,  we 
are  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  days  are  Ararm, 
however ;  the  sun  pours  doAvn  over  its  shadeless  level  Avith  a 
hot,  burning  power  ;  but  a  cool  wind  tempers  its  bitterness,  and 
at  night  the  air  is  absolutely  cold.  This  is  the  universal  rule 
of  all  our  Avestern  country,  from  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  distin- 
guishes the  summers  of  its  whole  extent  from  those  of  the  East." 


188 


INM-UENCE   OF  CUMil'E. 


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M:-NNESOTA. 


189 


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Minnesota — //s  Situaiion,  C'nmate  and  Productions. — Tho  State 
of  Minnesota  extends  from  431°  t^  ^9°  North  latitude,  and 
from  8'J°  21)'  to  97"  5'  of  West  longitude.  The  State  derives  its 
name  from  its  principal  river,  tbe  Minnesota,  wLicli,  in  tlio 
Dakota  language,  signifies  "  sky-tinted  icaters." 

This  favored  State,  as  regards  climate  and  productions, 
"  occupies  the  central  point  of  the  North  American  continent, 
midway  Letv,cen  the  Frigid  and  Torrid  Zones,  midway  be- 
tween Hudson's  Bay  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  midway  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans. 

"  \ccording  to  i.he  latest  estimate,  the  State  embraces  an 
area  of  84,000  square  miles  (53,7(50,000  acres),  an  extent  much 
gi'eiiter  than  the  territory  comprised  in  all  the  New  England 
States,  and  nearly  equal  to  the  combined  areas  of  Ohio  and 
Pennsylvania. 

"  The  general  surface  of  the  country  is  undulating,  similar  to 
the  rolling  prairies  of  the  a  "joining  States  of  Iowa  and  Wiscon- 
sin, with  greater  diversity,  beauty  and  picturesqueness  imparted 
to  the  scenery  by  rippling  lakes,  sparklmg  waterfalls,  high  blufis, 
wooded  ravines,  and  deeply  cut  channels,  through  Avhich  rapid 
cuiTcnts  wend  tlieu-  tortuous  way,  visiting  almost  every  home- 
stead. 

"  To  this  general  evenness  of  the  surface,  the  high  lands 
known  as  the  lladk'urs  den  Tcrres,  form  the  only  exception. 
These  are  a  chain  of  drift  lulls  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State, 
commonly  with  flat  tops,  rising  from  80  to  100  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  surrounding  country.  Among  these  hills  lie  em- 
bedded the  lakes  that  give  rise  to  the  three  great  rivers  of  tho 
continent.  The  Mississippi,  pursuing  a  southward  du'ection, 
over  ledges  of  limestone,  through  IV^'tile  prairies  and  rich 
Havannas,  gatliering  its  tributaries  from  a  country  of  great  fer- 
tility and  nearly  equal  in  extent  to  one  third  the  area  of  Europe, 
f)ours  its  waters  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Eastwardly,  through 
akcs,  rivers  and  foaming  cataracts,  flow  the  waters  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  system,  finc^ing  their  way  to  the  Atlantic.  North- 
ward runs  the  lied  lliver,  by  a  circuitous  route,  to  Lake 
Winnipeg,  where  it  mingles  with  waters  brought  from  tho 
Rocky  Mountains  by  the  Saskatchewan,  and  rolls  onward  to 
Hudson's  Bay. 

"  The  summit  of  the  narrow  lidge  which  divides  tho  sources 
of  the  Mississippi  and  lied  lliver,  and  highest  point  of  land 
in  tho  State,  in  latitude  47°  and  95°  west  longitude,  is  1,080 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  2,89G  miles 
from  it  by  the  river's  course. 

"From  this  eminence  diverge  three  disthict  slopes,  which 


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11] 


Ei  !■ 


190 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


plive  to  MinDGSota  the  form  of  a  vast  pyramid,  down  ./hose 
sides  the  disparted  waters  descend  to  their  ocean  outlets.  In 
a  southeasterly  direction  extends  the  great  Mississippi  slope, 
resting  its  broad  base  upon  the  Southern  Gulf ;  castwardly 
stretches  the  great  Superior  slope,  walleci  in  by  the  rocky  coast 
of  Labrador ;  and  northwai'd  reaches  the  slope  of  the  Red'  Eiver, 
which,  uniting  with  the  Saskatchewan  Valley,  gives  this  vast 
interior  basin  of  the  continent  the  form  of  an  in'egular  triangle, 
whose  centre  is  in  Minnesota. 

"  That  portion  of  the  Mlmssippi  Valley  included  within  the 
limits  of  Minnesota,  has  an  estimated  area  of  49,000  square 
miles,  being  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  whole  State.  The 
Mississippi  River,  from  its  source  to  the  mouth  of  the  Minne- 
sota, a  distance  of  G30  miles  by  its  course,  falls  960  feet,  whilst 
the  general  level  of  the  country  sinks  830  feet.  From  this  point 
the  land,  which  is  850  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  gradually 
rises  to  an  average  height,  near  the  Iowa  liue,  of  1,000  feet ; 
while  the  river,  sinking  gently  at  the  rate  of  four  inches  to  the 
mile,  gives  that  progressive  and  picturesque  elevation  to  the 
banks  which  characterize  the  Upper  Mississippi. 

"  Towards  the  Minnesota  Valley  the  surface  of  the  country 
exhibits  an  exterior  depression,  which  is  continued  throiighout 
the  Red  River  Valley  and  the  great  transverse  basin  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan, and  exercises  an  important  influence  upon  the 
climate. 

"The  Mississippi,  the  principal  River,  originating  in  Lake 
Itasca,  In  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  flows  southeasterly 
through  Minnesota  about  900  miles,  of  which  134  miles  wash 
its  eastern  boundary.  The  St.  Croix,  its  principal  tributary  on 
the  eastern  dde,  rises  in  Wisconsin,  and  forms  about  130  miles 
of  the  eastern  boundary  of  Minnesota. 

"  The  Minnesota,  the  principal  branch  on  the  western  side, 
rises  in  the  Coteau  des  Prairies  in  Dakota  Territory,  and 
extending  into  Big  Stone  Lake,  on  our  western  boundary,  flows 
with  a  vast  s^v-eep  tlirough  the  heart  of  the  State,  and  empties, 
470  miles  from  its  source,  into  the  Mississippi,  five  miles  above 
Saint  Paul. 

"  The  Superior  Slope  has  an  area  of  15,000  square  miles.  It 
is  traversed  by  ranges  of  hills  parallel  with  the  Superior  shore, 
which  stretches  westward  to  the  heights  of  land  that  separate 
the  Superior  from  the  Mississippi  basin.  The  hills  are  sandy, 
with  a  small  growth  of  wood ;  the  intervening  vallej's  have  a 
good  soil  and  are  well  wooded,  but  are  often  swampy  and  im- 
perfectly drained.  The  rivers  of  his  section  are  numerous, 
generally  short,  and  often  fall  in  beautiful  cascades  over  ledges 
of  primary  rock. 


MI>fNESOTA. 


191 


"  Tho  Red  River  Slope,  wIioro  southern  point  fxtcncls  to  Lac 
Traverse,  separated  from  BIl'  Stone  Lake  l)y  a  distance  of  only 
three  miles,  extends  northward,  msiintaining  a  uniform  altitude  of 
nearly  1,000  feet.  Tho  Red  River  has  its  source  in  the  hei<?hta 
of  land  near  the  head-wators  of  the  Mississippi,  Avhero  it  flows 
southwardly,  then  making  a  sudden  dotour,  where  its  waters  be- 
come navigable,  it  runs  nearly  duo  north,  washing  tho  western 
boundary  of  Minnesota  for  380  miles. 

"  The  American  Valley  of  the  Red  River  is  about  250  miles 
from  north  to  south,  and  contains  an  area  of  17,000  square  miles. 
Capt.  Pope,  in  his  official  re])ort  to  Congress,  says  :  '  In  its  whole 
extent  it  presents  an  unbroken  level  of  rich  prairie,  intersected 
at  right  angles  by  all  the  hoa\ily  timbered  tributaries  of  the 
Red  River,  from  the  east  and  west,  tho  Red  River  itself  ninning 
nearly  north  throiigh  its  centre,  and  heavily  timbered  on  both 
sides  with  elm,  oak,  maple,  ash,  etc.  Tliis  valley,  from  its  vast 
extent,  perfect  uniformity  of  surface,  richn':'ss  of  soil,  and  abund- 
ant supply  of  wood  and  water,  is  among  the  finest  wheat-grow- 
ing coimtries  in  the  world.' 

"  The  central  table  land,  around  which  the  grand  primary 
slopes  converge,  is  a  semicircular  curve,  surrounded  by  that 
immense  system  of  reservoirs  w'hich  for  ages  have  poured  their 
waters  through  different  outlets  into  the  sea.  This  level  is 
described  as  an  interminable  labyrinth  of  lakes  and  streams, 
separated  by  low  savannas  and  narrow  sandy  ridges,  covered 
with  pine ;  the  alluvial  bottoms  with  dense  forests  of  hard 
wood. 

"  Climafe. — Prominent  among  the  questions  proposed  by  the 
emigrant  seeking  a  new  homo  in  a  new  country,  are  those  con- 
cerning tho  climate,  its  tempe?'ature,  adaptation  to  the  cultore 
of  the  gi-aud  staples  of  food,  and  its  healthfulness. 

"  Tho  climate  of  Minnesota  has  often  been  the  subject  of 
unjust  disparagement.  'It  is  too  far  north  ;'  'the  winters  are 
intolerable  ;'  '  corn  will  not  ripen  ;'  '  fruit  will  not  gi'ov»\'  These 
and  other  similar  remarks  have  found  expression  by  those  who 
should  have  knowni  better.  To  the  old  settler  of  Minnesota, 
the  seasons  follow  each  other  in  pleasing  succession.  A  i  the 
sun  approaches  his  northern  altitude,  winter  relaxes  his  grasp, 
streams  and  lakes  are  unliound,  flowers  spring  up  as  if  by  the 
touch  of  some  magic  wand,  and  gradually  Spring  is  merged 
into  the  bright,  beautiful  June,  with  its  long,  warm  days,  and 
short,  but  cool  and  refreshing  nights.  The  harvest  months 
follow  in  rapid  succession,  till  the  golden  Indian  summer  of 
early  November  foretells  the  approach  of  cold  and  snow  ;  and 
again  winter  with  its  short  days  of  clear,  bright  sky,  and  brae- 


)'>l 


192 


INTLUENCE  OF  CIJJIaTT-:. 


inpj  air,  and  its  long  iiiglits  of  cloudless  Ijoautj,  complotes  the 
cii(;]o. 

"It  will  1)0  romcmborod,  that  thougli  Minnos(^ta  has  no 
monuiain  poalis,  its  goncral  <>l(natiou  gives  it  th(!  eharactcristics 
of  a  laouutainous  district ;  that  whih^  it  is  ecjuidistant  from  tho 
oceans  that  wash  tho  eastern  and  western  shores  of  tho  conti- 
nent and  is  therefore  coni])arativ(>] y  nnallc^ctcxl  Ly  oceanic  influ- 
ences, it  has  a  great  wat(!r  system  of  lakes  and  rivers  within  its 
own  borders.  These,  cond)ining  witli  other  influences,  give  the 
State  a  climate  in  many  respects  dissimilar  io  the  other  norlhom 
States. 

"  One  of  the  most  striking  of  the         )■■  ,ritics  of  this  climate 
is  tho  great  variation  betwc^en  tlio  c  ......v  iue  cold  of  vrintor,  when 

mercury  congeals,  and  the  iiitens(!  heat  of  midsummer,  wlien  it 
stands,  for  many  consecutive  dajs,  at  U5  ■  above  zero,  in  tho 
shade. 

"But  these  extremes  afford  no  index;  to  tho  real  (character  of 
the  climate  of  Minnesota.  Fortunately  wc;  have  am])lo  mc^ans 
by  which  to  det(;rmui(i  its  actual  tem])erature,  and  also  its 
temperature  comjiared  with  other  and  more  widely  known 
localities. 

"  From  records  kept  for  a  series  of  years,  at  different  pla(!es, 
the  Commissioner  of  Stalistics,  in  his  report  for  18(50,  furnishes 
t]ie  data  for  the  following  summary  : — (Jentral  Minnesota  has  a 
mean  temp.jrature  in  the  spring  (45")  equal  to  Northern  Illinois, 
Sjutliern  MichigaTi,  a7id  Ma;;  achusetts.  Its  Summer  mea}i 
tenrperaturo  (70')  coincides  Avith  tliat  of  Central  AVisconsin, 
Pemisylvania,  and  Soutluirn  Nmv  York.  Its  Autumn  tem])era- 
ture  (4'.) ')  is  the  e(]uival(>nt  of  d^ntral  Wisconsin,  Northern  Ncnv 
York,  and  New  Hampshire*.  Its  AVinter  raear  nip(>raturo  (16°) 
(equals  tliat  of  I^orthern  AVisconsin,  tlie  soutl  lindt  of  Canada 
East,  Central  Vermont,  and  New  Han  i>;:hire. 

"Its  yearly  mean  temperature  (44 '>)  coincides  with,  that  of 
Central  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Northern  New  Y'^ork,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  Maine,  and  has  a  range  from  the  Sunnuer  he.it  of 
Southern  Oliio  and  Stmthern  Pennsylvania.  Thus,  in  the 
breadth  of  four  degr'3es,  the  Sumnuu'S  of  IVnnsylvania  and 
Southern  New  Y'ork  are  followcul  by  tlie  Winter  of  Canada  and 
Northern  Maim;. 

"  It  may  be  remarked  that  the  Lilly  district  in  the  northoru 

f)art  of  the  Stat(!,  comprising  about  (me-fourth  of  its  surface, 
las  less  than  (55 '  Summer  heat,  or  tho  tempcM'ature  of  Canada 
and  New  England  ;  ^whilst  the  reuiaining  three-fourths,  having 
tt  southern  slope,  wanned  by  tho  southerly  bi-eezo  that  swtiops 
up  tlio  Valley  of  the  Mississij)pi,  has  a  general  average  of  70*^ 
Suuunor  heat,  or  tho  climate  of  I'ennsylvauia  and  Oldo. 


wima 


MINNESOTA. 


193 


"From  rain  tables  ])ivpaie(l  IVoni  ohscrvntions  recoKlcd  for 
a  series  of  years  at  sixteen  different  ])la('es  in  Canada  and  the 
States,  it  appears  that  th(!  mean  yearly  fall  of  rain  for  all  tlu! 
]ilaces  is  35.5  inches  ;  -whilst  th(3  )n(!an  yearly  fall  at  Fort  Snell- 
mf;  is  25.4  mehes,  and  the  mean  Summer  fall  lor  all  the  ])laccs 
is  11,2  inches,  wliilst  tlu!  nu^an  Summer  fall  at  Fort  Snelling  is 
10.0  inches. 

"  Thus  it  ^vill  be;  seiMi,  that  >vhile  Minn<>s<)ta  had  a  yearly  fall 
of  raiji  ten  inches  less  than  tlu;  mean  ol'  all  the  ])laces,  its  Sum- 
mer rain  is  l)nta  fraction  of  an  inch  less  tlian  tin;  mean  Sumn-er 
rain  of  all  th(!  ]>lac('s.  It  may  be  addtul,  that  one  half  of  the 
Spriufj;  rain  falls  in  tlu!  month  of  May,  and  a  fraction  more  than 
one-half  of  the  rains  of  Autumn  falls  in  Se]itemb(!r,  givin<^  more 
tlian  two-thirds  of  the  Avhole  yearly  amcmnt  of  rain  to  the  sea- 
son of  vegetable  growth,  and  leaving  bnt  the  small  fraction  to 
the  remaining  seven  months  of  the  yair. 

"Judging  from  the  climates  of  New  England,  Avhere  the  air  is 
load(Hl  with  vapor  from  the  ocean,  and  the  ground  is  for  months 
covered  with  dee])  snows  ;  or  judging  fiom  tluMuore  southern 
of  the  Western  Stat(>s,  wheie  rain  and  shu't  are  followed  by 
severe  cold,  it  has  been  concluded  that  wintiT  in  Minnesota  is 
a  season  of  ten-il)!)^  storm,  deep  snow  and  s<>vere  cold.  The 
average  fall  of  snow  is  about  six  inches  })er  month.  This  snow 
falls  in  small  (juantities^  at  diiferent  times,  and  is  rarely  blown 
into  drifts  so  as  to  impede  travcdling.  Tlu;  first  snow-fall  of 
Novend)er  usually  lays  on  the  gi'ound  till  March,  allbrding  pro- 
tection to  the  wiriter  {n'ain.  Occasionally  at  midday  a  slight 
thaw  occurs  in  places  with  a  southern  declivity.  Two  or  three 
times  in  the  course  ol'  eight  or  ten  winters,  the  ground  has  })eeu 
nncovered  for  a  few  days.  Long  driving  snow  stoi'iiis  are  iiu- 
Icnov/n,  and  rai    .seldom  falls  during  the  winter  months. 

"  With  an  averages  tem])erature  of  IG^,  the  dry  atmosi)here  of 
Winter  in  Minnesota  is  less  cold  io  {lie  sense  than  the  warmer, 
y(>t  damp,  climate  of  States  several  degree  s  further  south. 
With  th(!  new  year  comnu^nces  tlu;  extrenui  cold  of  (mr  I\Iinne- 
sota  Winter,  when,  for  a  few  days,  i]u\  m(>'cury  ranges  from  ten 
to  thirty  degrees  b(!h)w  zero,  falling  soiuetimes  even  l)elo\.  that. 
Yvi  the  severity  of  thes(i  da)s  is  much  sol'tc-ncul  by  the  biilliancy 
of  the  sun  and  tho,  stillness  of  the  air.  Thus,  whih^  other  States 
in  lower  latitudes  are  being  drenched  by  th(>  coKl  lain  storm, 
or  buried  bcmeath  huge  drifts  of  wintry  sno.  ,  Minnesota  enjoys 
a  dry  atmosj)liere,  and  an  almost  unbroken  succession  of  bright 
cloudless  days  and  s(U'ene  star-lit  nights  ;  aJid  ^\]\vu  tiie  moon 
turns  lier  fuU-orbcd  fucci  towards  tlu;  ea)th,  the  night  scene  of 
Minnesota  is  one  of  peerless  grandeur. 


\r 


I 


194 


INFLUENCi;  OF  CLIMATE. 


"  Adaptation  of  Climate  to  Ar/ricnltitre. — Scientific  men  liavc 
determined  that  the  successiful  cultivation  of  Indian  com 
requires  a  temperature  of  (57  de^^.  for  Jn\j,  and  of  65  deg.  for 
the  Summer.  Minnesota  has  a  Slimmer  temperature  of  70  deg. 
and  a  temperature  for  July  of  73  deg.  The  cultivation  of  wheat 
is  said  to  require  a  mean  temperature  of  from  62  to  65  deg.  for 
two  of  the  Summer  months.  Thus  it  wiU  be  seen  that  the  cli- 
mate of  Minnesota  is  well  adapted  to  the  successful  cultivation 
of  all  the  cereals. 

"  The  fact  established  by  climatalogists,  that  '  the  cultivated 
plants  yield  the  greatest  products  near  the  northernmost  limit 
at  which  they  will  grow,'  finds  abundant  illustration  in  the  pro- 
ductions of  Minnesota.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  cereals 
raised  in  the  southern  latitude  are  far  inferior  in  quality  to  the 
same  kind  produced  in  the  cooler  cUmate  of  the  north.  Corn, 
which  grows  to  the  height  of  thirty  feet  in  the  West  Indies, 
yields  but  a  few  keraels  on  a  spongy  col).  In  the  Southern 
States  the  stnlks  grow  fifteen  feet  high,  and  yield  fifteen  bushels 
per  acre  ;  in  highly  cultivated  sections  of  the  north  from  eighty 
to  one  hundred  bushels  are  taken  fi'om  stalks  seven  or 


feet  in  height, 
"  The 


eight 


warm,  early  Springs  of  milder  latitudes  develop  the 
juices,  and  push  forward  the  leaf  and  stalk  at  the  expense  of 
the  seed ;  whilst  the  cool,  late  Spring  weather  of  the  north 
checks  this  rank  luxuriance  of  leaf  and  stem,  and  reserves  the 
chief  development  to  the  ripening  period.  Minnesota,  with  its 
l^eculiar  cHmate,  combining  the  warm  Summers  of  the  southem 
of  the  more  Middle  States,  with  the  cool,  backward  Springs  of 
^ew  England,  exceeds  the  latter  section  in  the  quantity  of  its 
products,  because  its  Summers  are  warmer ;  and  the  former 
region  in  the  quality  of  its  products,  because  its  Springs  are 
cool,  and  hold  back  the  growth  of  the  plant.  Thus  this  State 
enjoys  the  conditions  of  temperature  during  the  growing  season 
adapted  to  the  production  of  superior  grains,  grasses,  and  escu- 
lent roots." 


f,  ■  1 


PART    X. 


11 


CLIMATE  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  STATES. 


Northern  Section,  or  Border  States. 

This  portiou  of  countr,;',  lying  south  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio 
Eivers,  known  as  the  "  Border  States,"  constitutes  a  most  favored 
region.  It  hes  between  35^  and  40^  north  latitude,  and  em- 
braces the  States  of  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, .t,nd  Missouri ;  being  bounded  on  the  west  by  Kansas 
and  the  Indian  Territory. 

The  chmate  varies  from  50°  to  GO'^  mean  annual  temperature, 
in  rumiing  through  five  degrees  of  latitude,  being  included  in 
the  Temperate  Zone.  The  coldest  month  is  January,  and  the 
warmest  month  July. 

The  temperature  of  the  seasc  ns  is  as  follows  : — 

Stations.  N.  Lat.   Si 

Norfolk,  Va.,        .  37" 
Lewisburg,  W.  Va.  38° 
Louisville,  Ky.,     .  38°  08' 
Memphis,  Tcnn.,  .  35°  08' 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,      .  38°  40' 

Mean  annual  fall  of  ram,  from  30  to  4G  inches. 

In  the  eastern  section  of  tliis  region,  facing  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  for  about  one  hundred  miles,  and  extending  westward 
across  the  Alleghany  range  of  mountains  to  the  Ohio  River, 
the  climate  and  soil  are  varied,  chiefly  owing  to  altitude.  On 
the  sea-board  the  country  is  sandy  and  level,  being  in  most 
places  clothed  with  a  growth  of  yellow  pine  when  not  cleared 
for  cultivation.  The  numerous  streams  flowing  into  Chesapeake 
Bay  drains  the  most  of  Virginia  east  of  the  Alleghany  ridge, 
affording  many  navigable  rivers.  Indian  com,  wheat  and 
tobacco  are  the  chief  agricultural  products,  the  latter  being 
very  extensively  cultivated,  and  exported  in  largo  quantities. 

Western  Virginia,  including  the  Alleghany  range  and  its 
western  slope  to  the  Ohio  River,  embraces  a  healthy,  rich,  and 


Jlirinjr.      S 

uinmcr. 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Year. 

57^rahr 

.77° 

Gl° 

42° 

GO'^ 

;54°     " 

74° 

55° 

35° 

54^ 

55°     " 

75° 

55° 

37° 

54<^ 

Gl°     " 

78° 

59° 

42° 

60« 

54°     " 

7G° 

55° 

32° 

54° 

it 


5' 


>  m 


196 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLDIATE. 


hi 


romantic  section  of  country  well  iidaptod  to  free  lal)or.  The 
forest  trees  are  varied  and  of  a  large  growth,  the  mountain  sides 
and  even  the  summits  being  mostly  heavily  timbered.  The 
valleys  have  a  rich  soil,  witli  a  mild  and  invigorating  climate. 
The  medicinal  foiuitains  hero  found  in  great  variety,  together 
with  the  health-restoring  atmosphere,  give  this  section  a  famed 
celebrity  which  it  most  justly  deserves. 

Climate  of  West  Virginia. 

"  A  study  of  llie  causes  affecting  the  climate  of  West  Vir- 
ginia, forming  a  part  of  the  Alleghany  range  of  mountains,  nnll 
be  found  interesting.  In  its  latitude,  lying  as  it  does  mainly 
between  37^  and  40^  North,  it  is  neither  suggestive  of  hyperbo- 
rean blasts  in  winter,  or  a  forrid  temperature  in  summer,  of 
])ent-up  valleys,  blockaded  with  drifted  snow  and  solid  ice  for 
weary  months,  or  sv/elteiing  plains,  parching  and  baking  under 
a  brazen  sky.  Its  mountains,  unlike  those  of  Europe,  or  tho 
Rocky  Mountains  in  the  west,  do  not  very  materially  affect  the 
conditions  of  climate,  excep*^^  to  reduce  the  temperature  in  pro- 
portion to  altitude.  There  are  local  differences,  to  be  sure,  tho 
result  of  peculiar  position,  but  the  interior  valleys  of  tho 
Alleghanies  have  nearly  the  same  temperature  as  the  broad 
slopes  on  either  side,  and  these  opposite  slopes  scarcely  ditier 
in  their  chmatic  peculiarities.  Unlike  the  mountains  of  Europe, 
however,  the  Alleghanies  in  this  latitude  have  less  rain  than 
the  plains  l)elow." 

Altitude. — "  Tho  average  altitude  of  the  highest  summits  is 
2,500  feet  in  this  section  of  the  AUeghauy  range,  increasing 
southward.  The  u])per  valley  of  the  Kanawha,  instead  of  being 
an  arid  desert  like  the  Colorado  and  other  elevated  plateaus,  is 
luxuriant  in  verdure,  differing  comparatively  little  in  humidity 
and  temperature  from  the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  Ohio  Valle3" 
in  the  same  latitudes  ;  indeed,  the  elevation  of  the  Kanawha  is 
but  2,500  feet  in  Southern  Virginia  near  i.s  s(mrce,  descending 
more  than  one  hundred  miles  before  it  bursts  its  Alleghanian 
barrier  in  Monroe  County,  West  Virginia,  where  it  ranges  be- 
tween 1,800  and  1,300  feet — thence  rapidly  falling  to  little  more 
than  600  feet  at  the  foot  of  tho  falls  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Gauley,  whence  it  flows  gently,  with  tho  slight  descent  of  a  few 
inches  to  the  mile,  to  the  Ohio  River.  The  following  table 
exhibits  the  elevation  of  the  Alleghanies  and  their  slopes  in 
this  section  of  that  gi'eat  mountainous  range  : — 


SUMMrr  EIJiVATION. 


Summit  in  latitude  37^, 


2,650  feet. 


Summit  at  crossing  of  Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.R.,  .  2,620 


if] 


CLIMATE  OF   WEST  VIRGINIA. 


197 


1  'A 


Western  plateau  at  White  Sulphur  Springs,       .  2,000  feet. 
Source  of  Cheat  and  Greenbrier  lliver,      .         .  2,400     " 
Blue  Eidge,  near  Hai-per's  Ferry,      .         .         .  1,800     " 

ELEVATION   OP  THE   VALLEY  OF   VIRGINIA. 

Near  the  Potomac  Eiver, 800  feet. 

At  Co^-ington,  Alleghany  County,  .  .  .  902  " 
At  Staunton,  Augusta  County,  ....  1,2'22  " 
"  The  first  of  these  divisions,  the  summit  and  tablo-lands  of 
the  Alleglianies,  comj)rises  a  narrow  strip  little  more  than  the 
average  width  of  a  county,  and  extends  from  the  Alleghanian 
backbon,  to  the  chain  of  mountains  which  are  really  a  continu- 
ation of  the  Cumberland  range,  and  known  as  Cotton  Hill, 
Gauley,  Laurel  Hill,  ttc.  The  vallc}'  b.otweon  these  two  ranges 
lies  at  it  level  of  1,850  to  2,000  feet  above  the  eea  ;  the  Green- 
brier Valley,  for  instance,  for  a  h.'iigth  of  150  miles,  having  an 
average  elevation  of  1,500  feet.  Much  of  the  cultivated  land  of 
Greenbrier  County,  which  is  one  of  the  summit  counties,  lies 
at  a  height  of  1,800  to  2,000  feet,  and  yet  ripens  corn  and  sor- 
ghum Avithout  difficulty,  and  enjoys  a  winter  climate  of  great 
mildness. 

"  The  second  division  includes  the  Valley  of  Virginia,  or  the 
Shenandoah  Valley,  averaging,  perhaps,  fifty  miles  in  width, 
and  extending  through  the  old  State  of  "Mrginia  in  a  south- 
western and  northwcHtern  direction.  Oidy  the  mouth  of  the 
valley  is  embraced  in  "West  Virgiui;i.  Its  average  elevation  in 
this  section  is,  perhaps,  1,000  feet. 

"  The  section  Avest  of  the  juountains,  Avhich  may  be  said 
practical*  to  represent  the  elevation  of  the  State,  containing 
at  least  ir),0()0  square  miles,  or  two-thirds  of  its  entire  area, 
including  and  almost  bomiding  on.  the  east  the  great  coal  basin, 
lies  betAA-een  the  altitudes  of  (100  and  1,500  feet.  The  uplands,  a 
fcAv  miles  from  the  Ohio,  Avith  an  elevation  diflfering  consider- 
jd)ly  at  dift'erent  points,  ]nay  bo  aA'eraged  at  800  feet. ' 

Temperat[:i;e. — The  mean  temperature  of  West  Virginia,  for 
the  year,  as  may  be  set'n  by  an  examination  of  the  isothemal 
lines,  is  lower  than  any  other  locality  in  the  same  latitude  east 
of  Missouri  lliver.  It  lies  between  the  lines  of  50°  and  55° 
Fahr.,  AA-hich  eml»race  the  southern  and  ceutnd  portions  of  Ohio, 
Indiana  and  Illinois,  Avith  contiguous  pcn'tions  of  Missouri ;  on 
the  Atlantic,  deflecting  northward  to  include  the  coast  lino 
between  New  York  and  Baltimore.  The  isothermal,  indicating 
;i  nu'an  temperatur<>  of  55  ,  ])asses  through  Baltimore  and 
Washington,  circles  round  t\w  southern  bounihtry  of  West  Vir- 
ginia, intersects  the  northern  bt)ider  of  Kentucky,  and  strikes 
St.  Lo\iis,  leaving  Philadelphia  and  Cincinnati  a  very  little  north 


!  i 

• 

m 


f' 


198 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


of  the  lino.  The  Ime  of  52  ~  would  come  near  the  centre  of  "West 
Virginia.  This  "woukl  make  the  average  temperature  slightly 
less  than  that  of  those  two  cities. 

Eainfall, — The  distribution  of  rain  in  West  Virginia  is 
admirably  calculated,  in  quantity  and  seasona})]cness,  to  insure 
success  to  husbandry,  and  give  facility  to  all  its  successive 
operations.  The  Spring  opens  early,  and  with  its  opening  come 
gentle  and  frequent  showers.  The  Summer,  with  less  humidity 
than  any  suiTounding  State,  is  not  siibject  to  long-coutinuecl 
droughts.  The  grasses  spring  green  and  fresh  upon  the  sum- 
mits of  the  loftiest  mountains  during  the  Summer." 

"  The  amoimt  of  rain  precij)itated  in  West  Virginia  is  from 
32  to  3G  inches  only,  as  indicated  by  partial  records  kept  in 
different  parts  of  the  State,  and  esjieeially  in  the  vicinity  of 
Lewisburg  and  the  White  Sul}>hur  Springs,  where  the  same 
mean  annual  rainfall  decreases  to  some  excent  southward  from 
quantity  was  indicated  on  both  sides  of  the  Alloghanies.  The 
Pittsburg,  and  its  minimum  quantity  is  found  in  Summer. 

Salubrity. — "It  would  scarcely  need  the  corroboration  of 
sanitary  facts  to  prove  the  healthfulness  of  this  region.  The 
altitude,  the  ii'regularity  of  surface,  the  absence  of  marshy  plains, 
so  peculiarly  characteristic  of  West  Virginia,  would  give  in  con- 
nection with  its  medium  temperature,  assurances  of  health  and 
longiAdty  to  her  population." 

The  Allegiianies,  or  Appalachian  Chain. — "  This  mountain 
range  extends  nine  hundred  miles,  nearly  parallel  with  the  sea- 
coast,  consisting  of  ridges  fifty  to  one  hundred  miles  {1f)art,  and 
parallel  with  each  other,  watered  and  wooded  to  their  summits, 
with  extensive  and  fertile  vallejs  between. 

"  The  Blue  Eidge,  Alleghany,  and  Cumberland,  with  many 
other  subdivisions,  as  North  Mountain,  Laurel  Hill,  Peaks  of 
Otter,  and  Greenbrier,  are  but  parts  of  the  great  Alleghany 
system.  That  pcn'tion  of  this  eml/raced  in  AVest  Virginia 
abounds  in  many  a  i)lateau,  Avitli  an  elevation  just  sufficient  to 
insure  a  pure  and  bracing  atmosphere,  and  all  conditions 
essential  to  vigorous  and  healthy  growth,  both  in  animal  and 
vegetable  life." — J.  11.  Dodge. 

Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  lying  contiguous,  near  the  centre 
of  the  great  Mississi|)pi  Valley,  may  be  said  to  be  the  "  Garden 
of  the  Union."  IncUan  corn,  tobacco  and  hemp  here  flourish 
in  perfection,  producing  a  large  surplus  for  exportation.  The 
natural  produce  of  wheat  is  said  to  ho.  much  smaller  on  the 
grazing  lands  of  Kentucky  than  in  Northern  Ohio,  or  the 
Northwestern  States.     "  The  same  lauds,"  says  a  late  writer, 


;'■  i 


TOBACCO,  AND  COTTON-GnOWI^'0. 


199 


"  which  on  an  average  yield  75  bushels  of  Indian  corn  to  the 
acr'%  would  not  yield  more  than  eighteen  bushels  of  wheat.  In 
Southern  Ohio,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  those  conditions  of 
cHmate  prevail  which  are  favorable  to  ]n-oducing  the  nuixiniuni 
yield  of  Indian  corn,  but  are  not  equally  well  suited  for  large 
crops  of  wheat." 

The  grasses  of  Kentucky  are  justly  celebrated  for  their  nutri- 
tioiis  qualities  ;  this  State  producing  fine  sheep,  cattle,  horses 
and  mules.  The  forests,  in  many  parts,  are  extensive  and 
hea\'ily  timbered  with  a  great  variety  of  forest  trees.  The 
graj)e-viue  also  liourishes,  and  is  extensively  cultivated  along 
the  Valley  of  the  Ohio. 

Missouri!,  lying  west  of  the  Mississippi,  is  also  favorably 
situated  as  regards  climate  and  soil.  Here  are  produced  simi- 
lar products  to  those  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  while  the 
rich  and  jjroductive  soil,  in  connection  with  her  mineral  wealth, 
renders  her  capable  of  sustaining  a  dense  population  on  almost 
e  i'ery  portion  of  her  large  territory'. 

Cultivation  of  Tobacco. — The  successful  raising  of  tobacco 
may  be  said  to  be  the  distinctive  agricultural  feature  of  the 
Border  States,  while  the  culture^  of  cotton  gives  a  distinctive 
character  to  the  more  Southern  States  of  the  Union. 

The  adaj^tation  of  the  soil  and  climate  for  the  cultivation  of 
tobacco  can  ])e  shown  by  no  better  test  than  the  census  returns 
of  18C0,  giving  the  ])roducts  of  the  States  north  and  south  of 
the  Ohio  lliver,  including  Pennsjivsnia,  Maryland  and  Virginia, 
lying  to  the  eastward. 


States. 

Pennsylvania, . 
Ohio,  . 
Indiana,    . 
Illinois, 


'J'obnrco,  1I)S. 

8,181,580 

25,092,581 

7,99y,:}78 

0,885,202 


States. 
Maryland, 
Virginia, . 
Kentucky, 
Tennessee, 


Tobacco,  lbs. 

38,410,905 
128,908,812 
108,120,804 

^.3,448,0<)7 


Total,    .      .       .  48,152,807  ,       Total,  .      .      .  818,954,178 

NoimiEUN  Limit  of  Cotton  Growing. — The  following  extract 
fi'om  a  letter  in  the  Chi'rif/o  Tribune  discloses  the  cause  of  the 
failure  of  the  cotton-]  )lanting  experiment  in  Southern  Ilhnois, 
the  crop  being  ruined  by  an  early  frost  in  the  latter  part  of 
August,  1808. 

"  The  80th  parallel  of  latitude  passing  through  the  States  of 
North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas,  may  be  said  to  form 
the  northern  limit  for  cotton  growing.  Not  one  of  the  northern 
counties  in  these  States  raises  cotton  to  any  considerable 
extent.  Botwe(^n  the  85th  and  80th  degrees  cotton  is  cultivated, 
often  successfully,  but   it  is  subject  to  be  bhghted  by  frost. 


t 


iff" 


i 


200 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


The  most  northern  county  in  North  Carohna  where  cotton  is 
cnltivated  extensively  and  successfully  is  Edgecombe,  south  of 
Roanoke  River,  which  is  situated  in  the  lowlands,  and  has  its 
climate  tempered  by  the  sea  breezes.  The  up-land  counties 
in  the  same  latitude  cultivate  cotton  on  a  small  scale,  but  often 
have  their  crops  cut  off  by  a  frost.  But  in  the  western  part  of 
the  State  cotton  is  not  successfully  planted,  except  in  the  coun- 
ties bordering  on  or  near  to  the  line  of  South  Carohna.  In 
Tennessee,  in  the  same  latitudes  and  elevation,  the  results  are 
the  same.  The  cotton  statistics  of  18G0  show  that  even  in  the 
lowlands,  between  the  Tennessee  and  the  Mississippi  Rivers,  no 
cotton  is  i^roducod  in  counties  on  the  Kentucky  border — in 
Olion,  Weakly,  Henry,  Sec. ;  while  the  southern  counties  of 
Tennessee,  between  the  same  rivers,  rival  the  best  cotton  dis- 
tricts of  Mississippi  in  productiveness.  In  Arkansas  the  same 
law  of  climate  prevails.  The  southern  counties  constitute  the 
very  heart  and  centre  of  the  cotton  region  of  the  United  States, 
while  the  northern  counties  })roduce  very  httle,  and  some  of  them 
none  at  all,  although  the  soil  is  highly  fertile." 

Climate  of  the  Cotton  Growing  States.  • 

The  cotton-growing  region  extends  over  a  wide  range  of 
countiy,  including  most  of  the  States  of  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
Arkansas  and  Texas,  also  the  southern  portion  of  Tennessee, 
running  through  ten  degrees  of  latitude,  from  20^  to  -36^  north. 
This  whole  region  possesses  a  very  similar  cHmate  and  soil, 
being  favorably  influenced,  no  doubt,  b}-  the  warm  waters  of  the 
Gulf  Stream,  and  may  bo  considered  .suh-frojtical  in  its  charac- 
ter and  productions,  having  a  mean  annual  temperature  vary- 
ing from  G0°  to  TC^  Fahrenheit.  The  southern  peninsula  of 
Florida,  along  the  Gulf  coast,  being  the  hottest  part  of  the 
United  States,  where  the  climate  assumes  a  tropical  character. 

That  portion  of  country  lying  on  the  Atlantic  slope  is  drained 
by  numerous  streams,  takmg  their  rise  in  the  Alleghanies  or 
Appalachian  chain  of  mountains,  flowing  eastward  into  the  ocean. 
The  principal  rivers  are  Cape  Fear,  Great  Pedee,  Santee,  Edisto, 
Savannah,  Altamaha,  and  St.  John's.  On  the  margin  of  most 
of  these  rivers  lice  is  produced  in  large  quantities,  while  in  the 
same  neighborhood,  contiguous  to  the  coast,  is  produced  the 
sea-island  cotton  in  abundance.  This  section  of  country,  which 
produces  Indian  corn,  cotton,  and  sweet  potatoes,  seems  desti- 


w 


CLDLVTE  OF  THE   COTTON-GROWING  STATES. 


201 


hite  of  nutritious  gi-assos  ;  hence  the  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  are 
of  an  inferior  qualitj-. 

Cotton  Culture. — "  It  would  seem,"  says  a  late  ^\Titer  on 
aoriculturo  and  cliinato,  "  that  South  Carolina  and  other  cotton 
growing  States  bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  cannot  materially 
increase  the  number  of  bales  of  cotton,  for  land  capable  of 
growing  cotton  is  limited.  The  sea-island  variety  is  not  culti- 
vated at  a  greater  distance  than  30  miles  from  the  sea,  and  the 
greater  part  of  it  within  ten  miles.  For  upwards  of  100  miles 
from  the  coast,  the  coiintry  consists  of  i)ine  barrens  and  SAvamps. 
The  pine  banvns  occupy  0,000,000  acres  of  land,  which  is  of 
the  poorest  description  and  cannot  be  cultivated  by  slave  laljor. 
The  inland  swami)s  occupy  at  least  1,200,000  acres,  which  are 
wholly  unproductive.  It  is  -well  known  that  the  upland  cotton 
is  raised  on  a  belt  intervening  between  the  pine  barrens  and  the 
hilly  country,  at  the  base  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains.  These 
up-land  cotton  soils  were  naturally  moderately  fertile,  but 
sonunvhat  easily  exhausted  and  difficult  to  ameliorate.  Their 
peculiar  character  will  bo  afterwards  di^scribed.  The  exhaus- 
tion of  the  soils  in  the  uplands,  where  the  greater  part  of  the 
cotton  crop  is  raised,  forces  the  owners  of  slaves  to  go  far- 
ther westward,  so  that  there  is  not  a  great  increase  in  the 
number  of  slaves,  and  the  amount  of  produce  ia  also  rather 
declining. 

"  The  low  islands  along  the  coast  of  Carolina  and  Georgia, 
with  a  margin  of  about  thirty  miles  from  the  sea,  furnish  the 
finest  quality  of  cotton  raised  in  any  part  of  the  world.  In  this 
(.'omparatively  limited  area,  the  cUnuxto  produces  a  length, 
strength  aiul  firmness  of  fibre  which  cannot  be  obtained  by  art 
in  wthor  localities.  The  nertluirn  limit  of  the  sea-island  cotton 
is  about  the  83rd  degree  of  latitude,  and  recent  trials  are  favor- 
able to  the  extension  of  its  culture  along  the  Florida  coast. 

"  The  cotton  is  j)lanted  in  ridges  4:1  feet  in  width  and  a  foot 
and  a  half  between  each  plant  in  the  roAv  ;  but  if  the  soil  is  rich, 
as  much  sometimes  as  tliree  leet.  The  cotton  seed  is  planted  fi'om 
the  20th  of  March  to  the  20th  of  April ;  and  as  the  plants  rise, 
the  soil  is  thrown  up  to  their  roots  by  the  plough  and  the  hoe. 
The  Is  of  the  cotton-]  )lant,  like  those  of  peas  and  beans, 
ripen  .soonest  on  the  branches  next  the  ground  ;  indeed,  while 
the  lowest  branches  of  the  cotton  plant  have  ripe  seeds  the 
upper  are  bearing  tlowcrs.  As  the  seeds  ripen  the  husks  ex- 
pand, and  the  cotton  fibre  appears  attached  to  the  seeds  in  the 
form  of  a  round  ball  as  large  as  an  orange.  As  soon  as  the 
earliest  husks  are  open,  which  i;:;  usually  about  the  last  of  July, 
picking  commences.     This  operation  is  long  continued,  for  a 


lit 

■^ 

1 


202 


INFLLENCE  OF  CLiaUTE. 


succession  of  pods  ripen  until  tlio  end  of  November.  As  the 
cotton  is  gathered,  it  is  dried  and  stored  up  till  -winter,  when  the 
separation  of  the  fibre  from  the  seed  is  afl'ected. 

"  The  soil  being  so  poor  upon  whicli  the  sea-island  cotton  is 
raised,  the  most  of  it  is  manured  witli  a  compost  of  cow-pen 
manure  and  vegetable  stutt'  from  the  swamps.  Guano  has  also 
been  appUed  to  a  considerable  extent  in  raising  cotton.  I  saw 
one  field  which  must  have  been  greatly  benefited  by  a  quantity 
of  this  stuff,  as  the  plants  to  which  it  had  been  applied  were 
nearly  double  the  size  of  these  that  were  undressetl.  Guano, 
however,  is  more  esteemed  as  a  manure  for  cotton  on  poor  soils 
than  on  rich,  for  on  the  latter  it  is  apt  to  send  up  too  much 
wood.  In  climates  iu  which  frosts  do  noi;  occur,  all  the  varieties 
of  cotton  that  are  cultivated  in  the  United  States  are  perennial. 

"  The  cotton  cro})  on  tlie  sea  islands  is  very  precarious.  Two 
or  three  weeks  of  showery  weather  fi'equently  occur  during  the 
picking  season,  and  the  seed  is  often  shed  out  and  the  produce 
diminished.  The  common  opinion  seemed  to  be,  that  the  aver- 
age produce  of  clean  cotton  of  the  sea-island  variety  is  not 
more  than  150  lbs.  to  the  acre.  On  the  sea-islands  and  along 
the  coast,  the  produce  is  kept  u])  by  manuring  the  soil  with 
salt  marsh  mud,  Avhich  seems  to  bo  the  best  application  for 
obtaining  quantity  and  quality.  On  the  Avhole,  the  quantity  of 
sea-island  cotton  is  not  increasing,  owmg  to  the  natural  poverty 
of  the  soil  and  the  limited  region  over  which  it  can  be  culti- 
vated. Latterly,  some  planters  have  been  improving  the  salt- 
tide  swamps  along  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  and  raising  large 
crops  of  cotton.  Eicli  land,  however,  is  not  so  favorable  to  the 
production  of  the  finest  fibre,  for  if  the  plant  is  stimulated 
beyond  a  certain  degree,  the  wool  becomes  inferior." 

The  lowland  and  tine  upland  cotton  soils  of  the  Carolinas, 
Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi  have  the  great  defect  of 
being  uusuited  to  the  growth  of  good  gi-asses  for  pasturage. 
This  cu'cumstance  renders  the  lands  easily  exhausted,  and  of 
little  value  unless  under  crop.  There  are  no  good  perennial 
grasses  native  to  these  soils,  and  none  have  yet  been  found  that 
grow  well  upoji  them. 

The  Bermuda  grass,  a  native  of  the  Valley  of  the  Ganges, 
is  the  most  valuable  one  for  the  Southern  States,  though  it 
does  not  mature  its  seeds.  Owing  to  this,  it  is  difficult  to 
obtain  a  sward,  which  can  only  be  done  by  breaking  up  the 
land  where  it  has  got  possession,  and  by  planting  small  pieces 
of  sod,  and  these  spreading,  soon  fill  tlie  ground.  It  must 
have  the  full  blaze  of  the  sun  for  its  growth,  and  it  perishes  iu 
the  shade  of  other  plants.  On  rich  land  it  is  cut  three  times 
daring  Summer,  and  has  been  known  to  yield  ten  tons  of  hay 


RICE  CULTURE. 


203 


■c 


iH)'? 


to  the  acre  in  one  season.  This  vahiablo  gi'ass  is  only  fjuccoss- 
fiiUy  cultivatecl  in  the  Houthom  States,  from  Virgmia  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. — llnsscWs  Atjriculture  and  Cliitinfe  i>f  U.  Stat.a. 

EiCE  Culture. — The  same  writer  remarks  : — "  In  Georgia  and 
the  Carohnas  there  are  a  good  many  marshy  grounds  in  the  pine 
region,  which  have  arisen  fi-om  beds  of  clay  sending  the  water 
to  the  surface  in  springs.  They  are  composed  of  black  vege- 
table matter,  too  deficient  in  earthy  materials  to  be  ])ossessed 
of  fertility  of  any  great  permanence.  It  was  on  such  soils, 
however,  that  the  lirst  settlers  raised  ri?e  ;  but,  being  easily 
exhausted,  recourse  had  constantly  to  be  made  to  new  land. 
Though  a  considerable  quantity  of  rice  is  here  and  there  raised 
over  the  u}>per  country  on  such  soils,  and  even  on  dry  cotton 
lands,  for  domestic  use,  none  of  it  is  reckoned  sufficiently  good 
for  exportation.  Tlie  discovery  that  the  tide-water  swamps  are 
pecuharly  well  adapted  for  the  culture  of  rice  is  comparatively 
I'ccent.  At  first,  the  barren  sandy  soils  were  more  valued  than 
they  are  now,  because  indigo  was  raised  upon  them,  and  w^.s 
one  of  the  great  staples  of  the  country.  This  article  can  now 
be  brought  to  the  European  market  at  a  cheaper  rate  from 
India,  and  its  culture  has,  therefore,  been  abandoned  in  the 
United  States. 

"  It  is  on  the  tide-water  swamps  of  the  Savannah  and  the 
numerous  other  rivers  in  Georgia  and  the  CaroUnas,  that  the 
fine  rice  known  in  Europe  as  the  Carolina  rioe  is  cultivated. 
Tlie  production  of  rice  for  exportation  is,  in  a  great  measure, 
confined  to  these  swamps ;  and  it  is  further  limited  to  the  fresh- 
water-tide swamps ;  for  where  the  tides  are  salt,  or  even  brack- 
ish, they  are  unsuitable  for  in-igation.  Eice  is  cultivated  about 
four  miles  below  and  twelve  miles  above  Savannah. 

"  The  avera^^e  produce  of  rough  or  unhuskcd  rice  on  the 
Savannah  swamps  is  estimated  at  from  45  to  55  bushels  to  the 
acre.  Though  tlie  fields  have  been  long  under  cropping,  the 
produce  is  still  large,  but  no  doubt  smaller  than  when  the  land 
was  first  cleared  ;  still  frpm  70  to  80  bushels  are  sometimes  got 
on  old  cultivated  fit'lds.  Crops  of  rice  are  usually  taken  in  suc- 
cession as  long  as  the  land  is  ^lean ;  but  when  it  becomes  foul 
through  weeds,  or  the  *  volunteer  rice,'  it  is  laid  under  dry  cul- 
tivation for  a  year.  This  is  attended  with  great  benefit ;  for 
although  no  manure  is  applied,  and  two  croi")S — one  of  oats  and 
another  of  potatoes — are  taken,  yet  the  land  is  so  much  reno- . 
vated  that  the  succeeding  crop  of  rice  is  often  increased  b}'  a 
half,  and  sometimes  even  doubled. 

"  The  '  volunteer  rice,'  which  is  interesting  in  a  physiological 
point  of  view,  causes  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  the  planters. 


k 


it! 


204 


mFLUENCE  OF  CUMATE. 


The  rice-seeds  that  are  shed  when  the  crop  is  cut,  and  Ho  over 
the  winter,  produce  an  inftirior  qiiality  of  grain,  for  under  thoso 
conditions  they  appear  so  far  to  revt^rt  to  thcnr  natural  state. 
Though  the  husk  of  tlie  '  vohmteer  rice '  is  of  the?  same  light- 
yellow  color  KB  that  of  the  tinest  quality,  the  kernal  is  red,  and 
a  few  grains  of  this  kind  in  a  sam])le  detract  from  its  market 
value.  There  are  several  varieties  of  '  volunteer  rice,'  which  are 
usually  the  moat  vigorous  plants  in  the  field  ;  and  as  some  of 
th(!m  ripen  before  the  main  crop,  they  fall  out  and  increase  with 
great  rapidity. 

"  The  rice  plant  adapts  itsei  in  a  most  wonderful  manner  to 
the  most  opposite  conditions  in  resjiect  to  moisture.  There  is 
no  cultivated  plant  that  bears  any  resemblance  to  it.  The  same 
variety  which  grows  on  the  upland  cotton  soils  and  on  tho,  dry 
pine  ban-ens,  gi-^-ws  in  the  tide-swamps,  where  the  land  is  laid 
under  water  for  weeks  at  a  time  ;  and  even  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  Delta  of  the  Mississippi,  where  the  fields  are  under  water 
from  the  time  of  sowing  to  that  of  reaping. 

"  The  rice-grounds  are  comparatively  healthy  to  white  men 
in  Winter,  but  not  so  in  Summer  and  Autumn,  when  the  crops 
are  groAving  and  ripening.  It  has  been  often  remarked  that  the 
swamps,  in  their  original  state,  along  the  southern  rivers  of  the 
United  States,  were  by  no  means  so  deleterious  to  the  Avhites 
as  they  are  now,  when  brought  under  cultivation.  Though  this 
seems  to  apply,  in  a  certain  degree,  to  all  the  rich  alluvial  soils 
in  the  river  bottoms,  yet  it  is  particularly  applicable  to  the 
rice-grounds  that  are  irrigated  by  the  tides.  Indeed,  the 
undrained  swamps  remain  comparatively  healthy  so  long  as 
they  are  covered  wath  the  natural  vegetation.  It  is  said  to  be 
attended  with  extreme  danger  to  a  white  man  to  remain,  during 
the  hot  season,  for  one  night  on  the  rice-grounds  of  Carolinas. 
The  planters,  with  their  families,  invariably  leave  the  rice- 
grounds  during  the  hot  season,  and  remain  m  a  more  healthy 
l^art  of  the  country  until  the  crops  are  harvested.  Though  the 
negroes  are  not  hablo  to  those  diseases  which  are  so  fatal  to 
the  white  inhabitants  in  Summer,  yet  they  do  not  increase  in 
the  rice  districts  ;  the  damp  ground  and  the  nature  of  the  labor 
render  them  liable  to  pulmonary  diseases  and  other  com- 
plaints." 

Tlie  climate  of  the  Summer  months  in  the  A-icinity  of  Charles- 
ton and  Savannah  is  intensely  liot,  and  very  moist  in  the  low 
grounds.  On  an  average  about  tweutj'-two  inches  of  rain  fall, 
and  the  temperature  obtains  a  mean  of  80^  Fahr.  Such  con- 
ditions give  great  force  to  vegetation.     The  early  Autumn  is 


CLIMATE  OP  FLORIDA,   ETC. 


205 


also  hot,  though  dryor  than  Summer,  and  this  seems  to  promote 
those  miasmatic  emanations  which  are  so  injurious  to  the  wliito 
popuhition. 

Rice  is  also  cultivated  in  Florida,  n\or\^  the  Gulf  coast,  and 
in  Louisiana,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River,  where, 
also,  the  sugar-cane  is  successfully  cultivated. 

Climate  of  Florida,  its  Productions,  &c. 

The  peninsula  of  Florida,  bounded  on  the  east  V)y  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  on  the  west  hy  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
the  most  southern  land  bolouging  to  the  United  States, 
approaches  within  a  degree  £ind  a  half  of  the  Ton-id  Zone,  of 
whose  climate  it  largely  partakes,  and  a  number  of  whose  pro- 
ductions it  yields,  being  wafted  by  the  warm  winds  and  moisture 
proceeding  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  According  to  Dr.  PeiTine's 
tables  the  mean  temperature  at  Key  West  and  Havana,  in  1838, 
was  : — 


Key  West. 

Havana. 

Key  West.  Havana 

Montha 

°  Fal.r. 

°  Fiilir. 

Months. 

°  Ftthr.     "  Fahr 

January, . 

.    .     ()9 

70 

Jidy,  .    .     . 

.     82             80 

February, 

.    .     70 

75 

August,  .     . 

.    81          80 

March,    . 

.    .     73 

77 

September,  . 

.    77          79 

April, .     . 

.    .     75 

78 

October, .     . 

.    74          75 

May,  .     . 

.     .     79 

80 

November,  . 

.    72          72 

June,  .     . 

.    .    81 

81 

December,  . 

.    70         72 

On  the  night  of  January  28-29  (1858),  the  coldest  known  for 
many  years,  the  thermometer  fell  to  44".  At  St.  Augustine  the 
thermometer  has  sunk  on  various  occasions  to  33"^,  30°  and  24°; 
and  at  PHatka,  in  Lat.  29^  38',  to  28"  and  to  27°  ;  at  Tampa, 
Lat.  27°  48',  to  28°  and  2G^  ;  at  Fort  King,  in  the  interior,  half 
a  degree  south  of  St.  Augustine,  the  climate  in  more  severe 
than  on  the  coast,  and  ice  an  inch  thick  is  sometimes  seen  in 
its  vicinity.  The  Summers,  however,  are  hotter  than  on  the 
coast.  While  the  minimum  range  at  St.  Augustine  was  39^, 
and  the  maximum  92-',  at  Fort  King  the  minimum  was  2G°,  and 
the  maximum  105^.  The  Gulf  coast,  too,  has  a  more  severe 
winter  climate  than  the  Atlantic. 

From  the  relative  number  of  deaths  occurring  annuall}-, 
according  to  the  census  of  18G0,  it  appears  that  Florida  in  the 
south  and  New  York  in  the  nortli  are  tlie  two  most  healthy 
sections  of  the  United  States  bordering  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

"  The  climate  of  South  Florida  may  be  set  doAvn  as  the  most 
desirable  winter  chmate  in  the  United  States,  presenting  to  the 
JuvaMd  of  the  north  a  desirable  retreat  from  the  rude  blasts 
pecuHar  to  that  region."     In  addition  to  St.  Aiigustine  and  its 


206 


IOTI.UENCE   OF  CLIMATE. 


\'icinity,  "  the  Miami,  on  Key  Biscajiie  Bay,  and  Key  West,  may 
be  considered  as  most  desirable  points  for  establishing  the 
necessary  facilities  for  the  encouragement  of  visitors  of  that 
class,  numbers  of  whom  annually  go  on  to  Cuba  and  other  West 
India  Islands,  but  who  would  be  induced  to  stop  in  Florida 
were  there  proper  accommodations.  No  place  possesses  greater 
advantages  for  fishing,  boating,  <fcc.,  than  those  places  men- 
tioned. At  Miami,  on  Key  Biscayne  Bay,  has  been  stationed, 
during  tho  past  eightoen  months,  a  company  of  United  States 
troops,  and  it  has  been  a  matter  of  surj^nse  to  the  Surgeon,  that 
he  has  had  no  case  of  sickness  among  the  soldiers  during  that 
time.  The  inhabitants,  some  of  whom  have  resided  there  for 
many  years,  are  all  grateful  witnesses  of  the  remarkable  healthful 
ness  of  that  vicinity ;  and  although  the  Summers  are  warm,  the 
air,  during  the  entire  day,  is  fanned  by  the  easterly  winds  prevail- 
ing in  that  season,  and  rendering  it  comfortable  for  the  laborers 
to  pursue  their  vocations  at  all  times.  This,  in  connection  with 
other  and  peculiar  advantages,  make  it  emphatically  the  homo 
of  the  man  of  slender  means  and  enterprising  disposition. 

"  Tho  various  tropical  fruits  are  all  adapted  to  this  southern 
portion  of  Florida,  and  many  of  them  can  be  made  profitable 
lor  export,  such  as  the  lime,  guava,  citron,  lemon  and  cocoa-nut. 
Cotton,  rice,  and  the  sugar-cane  can  also  be  cultivated.  Pre- 
serA'es  made  from  the  three  first-named  fruits  are  always  in 
demand,  and  may  be  prepared  for  market  extensively.  Tho 
pine-appl 3  is  successfully  cultivated  at  Indian  Eiver  and  other 
places,  but  as  it  requires  a  peculiar  soil,  it  is  confined  to  certain 
locahties.  Many  points  of  this  region  are  adapted  to  the  plan- 
tain, banana,  orange,  <S:c.,  where  future  eflforts,  governed  by 
experience  and  discretion,  will  doubtless  cause  them  to  become 
established  products." 


TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  SEASONS. 


207 


Climate  of  .he  Southern  States. 

SuB-TnoriCAL  Climate. — It  seems  to  be  popular  of  late,  with 
a  certain  class  of  writers,  to  extol  the  climate  of  the  South  :  now 
slavery  being  abolished,  it  is  argued  that  Northern  people  can 
settle  there  with  impunity  and  enjoy  health.  "  The  climate  of 
Georgia,  in  the  southern  part,"  says  a  late  writer,  "  is  never 
excessively  warm,  the  range  of  the  thermometer  in  the  month 
of  July  does  "ot  exceed  81°,  and  for  December  and  January  52° 
Falir.  The  sky  is  generally  clear,  and  the  atmosphere,  if  not 
bracing,  certainly  not  enervating."  The  following  Table  is 
reliable. 

TEMPERATURE  OF   THE   SEASONS, 

Along  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  Constn,  togcth(;r  with  the  Mean  Annual 

Temperature. 

Si)rinjt>:.  Su'mer.  Aut'mn.  Winter.  Year. 
Stations.  N.  Latitude.     '  Falir.    ■•  Falir.  '  Fahr.     '  Fahr.  °  F'hr 

Key  West,  Fla., 
Fort  Myers,      . 
Fort  Brocke,     . 
St.  Augustine,  . 
Pensacola, 
Mobile,  Ala.,     . 
New  Orleans,  La., 
Savannah,  Ga., 
Charleston,  S.  C, 
Wilmington,  N.  C, 

Fort  Monroe,  Ya., 
Washington,  D.  C, 
Baltimore,  Md., 
Philadelphia,  Pa., 
New  York,  N.  Y., 
Boston,  Mass.,  . 
Portland,  Me.,  . 
Eastport,     "    . 

The  annual  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  between  the  24th  and 
35th  parallels  of  latitude,  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  averages  from 
50  to  60  inches,*  while  between  the  35th  and  45th  parallels  the 
qxiantity  of  rain  and  snow  averages  from  35  to  45  mches.  The 
same  excess  of  moisture  occurs  along  the  northwest  Pacific 
coast,  embracing  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory,  while  not 
to  exceed  5  and  10  inches  of  rain  falls  annually  in  parts  of  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona. 


24"  32' 

7(5 

82 

77 

69 

76 

26°  38' 

75 

82 

77 

65 

75 

28°  00' 

72 

80 

73 

62 

72 

29"  48' 

09 

80 

71 

58 

69 

30°  18' 

G9 

81 

70 

5() 

69 

31°  12' 

07 

79 

GG 

52 

66 

20°  57' 

70 

82 

71 

56 

70 

32=^  05' 

G7 

80 

68 

54 

67 

32°  45' 

GO 

80 

68 

52 

6Q 

34^^  00' 

G4 

80 

67 

50 

Go 

•EMPERAT] 

E  CLIMATE. 

37°  00' 

57 

77 

62 

40 

59 

38'  53' 

56 

76 

56 

36 

56 

39°  17' 

53 

74 

56 

34 

54 

39°  5G' 

50 

74 

56 

33 

53 

40°  42' 

48 

71 

54 

32 

51 

42°  20' 

4() 

G8 

52 

28 

481 

43°  40' 

43 

Go 

48 

25 

45 

44°  54' 

40 

61 

47 

24 

43 

I' 


*  The  heat  and  moisture  of  this  region,  in  many  localities,  engenders  fevers 
nnd  other  diseases. 


208 


INFLUENX'E  OF  CLIMATE. 


Monthly  Temparatures. 


TABLE, 

Showing  the  different  Jlonthly  Terapcraturos,  for  the  first  Six  Months  of  the 
Your,  from  Florida  to  Maine,  on  tlic  Atlantic  seaboard. 

Stations,  &c. 

Key  West,  Fla., 
Fort  Dallos,  "  . 
Fort  Pierce,  "  . 
St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  . 
Pcnsacola,'"'         " 
Savanntih,  G.i., 
Augusta,       "    . 
Charleston,  8.  C, 
Fort  Johnston,  N.  C. 
Norfolk,  Va.,     . 
Washington,  D.  C,  . 
Baltimore,  Mel., 
Philadelphia,     . 
New  York, 
New  Lond;  n,  Conn., 
Newport,  H.  I., 
Boston,  Mass.,  . 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  . 
Portland,  Me.,  . 
Eastoort,    " 
Montreal,"!"  Can., 
Quebec,         "    . 

Variation, 

From  the  above  Table,  running  through  22  degi-ees  of  lati- 
tude, embracing  the  whole  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States  and  north  to  Quebec,  Can.,  it  appears  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  Key  West  in  Febniary  is  aboul  he  same  as  Charleston 
in  May,  and  Baltimore  in  June  ;  the  temperature  of  Pensacola 
in  January  is  the  same  as  L'orfolk  in  April,  and  Enstport  in 
June  ;  the  temperature  of  St.  Augustine  in  January  is  about  the 
same  as  New  York  in  May,  and  Portland  in  June  ;  and  Charles- 
ton in  January  has  the  same  temperature  as  Portland  in  May, 
being  a  dift'erence  of  four  months. 


/•"  ' 

—Moan  To 

nperaturo.- 

\ 

1  early 

N.  Lat. 

Jan. 

Fob. 

Mar. 

Ai)ril 

Mav. 

June 

Mean. 

°  K-hr. 

-K-Im-. 

"  K'lir. 

'  K'lir. 

'  Kallf. 

°  K'hr 

°  Kiilir 

24"  32' 

70 

72 

74 

77 

79 

82 

76.00 

25^  55' 

OG 

67 

70 

75 

78 

81 

74.75 

27^  30' 

63 

G5 

70 

73 

77 

80 

73.20 

20=  48' 

57 

GO 

64 

69 

74 

79 

69.61 

30^  18' 

54 

58 

60 

67 

74 

80 

68.74 

32=  05' 

54 

55 

59 

67 

75 

80 

67.44 

33=  28' 

47 

51 

56 

()5 

72 

79 

64.00 

32=45' 

51 

56 

60 

(;6 

73 

78 

66.61 

34=  00' 

49 

51 

5{] 

61 

73 

78 

65.68 

37^  00' 

42 

46 

49 

56 

66 

74 

59.00 

37=  53' 

34 

37 

46 

55 

G6 

74 

56.00 

39=  17' 

33 

35 

43 

54 

63 

71 

55.00 

30^  57' 

33 

34 

41 

50 

61 

70 

53.00 

40^  42' 

32 

34 

40 

49 

58 

G8 

51.00 

41"  21' 

32 

33 

39 

47 

56 

65 

50.07 

41=  30' 

33 

34 

38 

46 

55 

64 

50.27 

423  21' 

23 

28 

33 

42 

56 

64 

48.90 

43^  04' 

23 

27 

33 

42 

52 

60 

44.87 

43^  39' 

20 

25 

33 

42 

51 

58 

44.21 

44=54' 

21 

26 

32 

41 

48 

54 

43.00 

45^  30' 

15 

17 

29 

43 

58 

68 

44.60 

46°  49' 

10 

13 

26 

38 

52 

62 

41.00 

Latitude. 

Do-, 

oes  of  Fahrenheit. 

22=  17' 

GO 

59 

48 

39 

27 

20 

35.00 

*  Lowest  in  January,  -|-21'  Fahr. 
f  Lowest  in  January,  — ;!!"  Fahr. 


Highest  in  July,  +98°  Fahr. 
Highest  in  July,  +98°  Fahr. 


MONTHLY  TEMPERATUHES. 


209 


.00 


TABLE, 

Showing  the  different  Monthly  Tomiieratures,  for  the  first  Six  Months  of  the 
Year,  from  Texas  to  Minnesota,  through  tho  Valley  of  the  Mis-sissippi  and 
Great  Lakes. 

Stations,  &c. 

Fort  Brown,  Texas,  , 

Corpus  Christi,  " 

San  Antonio,      " 

New  Orleans,'^'  La.,  . 

Baton  Rouge,     " 

Fort  Towson,  In.  Tcr 

Fort  Smith,  Ark., 

Fort  Scott,  Kansas,  . 

St.  Louis,  Mo., . 

Fort  Leavenworth,    . 

Chicago,  111.,     . 

Milwaukee,  Wis., 

Detroit,  Mich., . 

Fort  Gratiot,     . 

Green  Bay,  Wis., 

Fort  Snelling,t  Minn. 

Fort  Eipley,  ^      " 

Mackinac,  Mich., 

Sault  St.  Mario,  Mich.  4G°  30' 

Fort  Wilkins, 

Variation, 

From  the  above  Table,  running  through  about  22  degi-eos  of 
latitude,  extending  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Upper  Missis- 
sippi, it  appears  that  the  temperature  of  Fort  Bro'^vn  in  January 
is  about  the  same  as  Fort  Ripley  in  June,  being  a  dili'eronce  of 
live  months ;  the  temperature  of  New  Orleans  in  Febiaiary 
being  about  the  same  as  Chicago  in  May,  and  Sault  St.  Mary 
in  June,  a  difference  of  four  months. 


f 

— ^Ican  Te 

npera 

tnrc.  - 

1 

Yearly 

N.  Lat. 

Jan. 

F(!b. 

Mar. 

A))ril.  May 

J  line 

.   Mean 

•  Fiilir. 

•F'lir. 

•K'hr. 

•I'hr. 

■  Falir. 

■  K'hr. 

"  Kulir  . 

25°  54' 

Gl 

G5 

66 

75 

80 

83 

73.75 

273  47» 

5G 

57 

66 

70 

78 

82 

71.00 

29^^  25' 

54 

5G 

GO 

G6 

75 

79 

68.00 

29'^  57' 

55 

58 

64 

70 

76 

81 

70.00 

30  ^  20' 

53 

55 

61 

69 

76 

80 

68.00 

34^  00' 

43 

46 

53 

64 

70 

77 

61.69 

35°  23' 

40 

44 

52 

62 

70 

75 

60.00 

37°  45' 

34 

30 

48 

53 

69 

73 

56.00 

38°  40' 

33 

36 

46 

52 

GC) 

72 

54.50 

39°  21' 

32 

35 

46 

51 

65 

70 

53.00 

41°  52' 

24 

25 

33 

46 

56 

64 

47.00 

43°  03' 

23 

25 

33 

45 

54 

64 

46.20 

42^  20' 

27 

32 

39 

45 

56 

66 

47.35 

42°  55' 

25 

26 

33 

44 

54 

63 

46.30 

44°  30' 

20 

25 

33 

40 

50 

62 

41.50 

44°  33' 

14 

22 

37 

50 

57 

69 

44.54 

46°  19' 

8 

12 

30 

41 

52 

62 

39.30 

45°  51' 

19 

25 

30 

ij.) 

45 

68 

40.65 

40°  30' 

IG 

22 

29 

38 

49 

58 

40.37 

47°  30' 

23 

21 

29 

38 

48 

57 

41.00 

Latitude. 

D(!grcoa 

Df  Fahronh 

'it. 

21°  7G' 

53 

53 

36 

37 

32 

26 

34.45 

\  i 

1  n 


n 


m  i 


*  Lowest  in  January,  +34°  Falir. 
t  Lowest  in  January,  — SO"  Fahr. 


Highest  in  July,  +98°  Fahr. 
Dighest  in  July,  +06°  Fahr. 


210 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Climate  of  the  Sciuth-%vestern  States. 


H':. 


Tlie  Gulf  States  of  Alabauia,  Mississippi,  Louisiana  and 
Texas,  including  Arkansas,  possess  tor  the  most  part  a  similar 
climate  and  soil,  yielding  like  productions,  if  we  except  tlie 
sugar-cane,  whicli  is  most  common  to  Louisiana.  This  section 
of  country  extends  westward  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
confines  of  New  Mexico  and  the  llocky  Mountain  range,  being 
known  as  the  Southwestern  States.  The  mean  annual  tempcr- 
turo  varies  from  GO^  to  T-i^  Fahreulieit,  being  the  hottest  in 
Texas  near  the  Bio  Grande. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  seasons  is  as  follows  : — Spring, 
70^,  Summer  82^  Autumn  71  -",  Winter  SG^*.  Yearly  mean,  70° 
Fahr.,  agreeing  with  the  Summer  temperature  of  the  City  of 
New  York  and  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

The  mean  fall  of  rain  for  the  seasons  is  as  follows  . — Spring, 
11  inches  ;  Summer,  17  inches  ;  Autunm,  10  inches  ;  Winter,  13 
inches.  Mean  annual  fall  of  Kain,  51  inches  ;  subject,  however, 
to  great  variation  from  j'ear  to  year.-' 

The  Delta  of  the  Mississii)])i,  below  Baton  Bouge,  is  about 
two  hundred  miles  in  length,  averaging  seventy-five  in  breadth. 
Its  estimated  area  is  fifteen  thousand  square  miles,  and  it  is 
only  a  very  small  portion  of  this  extent  that  is  capable  of  being 
cultivated  ;  for  the  interior  is  a  vast  swamp  covered  with  trees, 
whoso  toj^s  only  are  sometimes  visible  during  the  flood  season. 
The  cultivated  land  of  the  Delta  is  mostly  confined  to  the  banks 
of  the  river  and  those  of  its  l)ayous ;  indeed,  ra.rely  extending 
Ijeyond  a  mile  or  two  from  the  channels.  And  these  have  only 
been  reclaimed  by  the  forniation  of  embankments,  or  "levees," 
to  prevent  inundation. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  State  of  Arkansas,  bordering  on  the 
Mississippi,  and  the  valleys  of  the  large  rivers  whicli  empty  into 
it,  are  low  and  swam])y,  Avith  a  heavy  growth  of  timber,  and  is 
frequently  overflowed.  In  the  central  part  it  is  undulating  and 
broken,  and  in  the  northwestern  part  the  Ozark  Mountains, 


*  New  Orleans  was  ovorflowod  on  the  2Stli  Dec,  18G3,  to  an  extent  never  wit- 
ncBsi'il  since  1841).  For  three  iliiys  it  rained  tcrriliciiily  and  incessantly.  From 
St.  Charles  street  to  the  Rwaniptlie  thorouffhfares  were  converted  into  miniature 
rivers.  Hundreds  of  buildingH  were  completely  flooded,  and  many  bridfjes  swept 
away.  On  Sunday  morning  tho  city  was  submerge  d  to  a  depth  varying  from 
one  to  two  feet. 


CLIMATE  or  THE  SOUTH-WESTERN  STATES. 


211 


rising  sometimes  to  the  height  of  1,500  feet,  extend  across  the 
State.  The  soil  is  of  every  variety,  from  the  most  protluctive 
to  the  most  sterile.  Prairies  are  almndaut  and  of  large  extent. 
Cotton,  sugar  and  Indian  corn  are  the  staple  ]iroductions ;  but 
much  of  the  country  is  well  calculated  for  raising  cattle. 

The  northern  and  central  portions  of  the  State  of  Mississippi 
become  elevated  and  diversified  after  leaving  the  river  bottoms  ; 
much  of  the  soil,  being  a  deep  rich  mould,  producing,  abund- 
antly, cotton,  Indian  corn,  sweet  potatoes  and  grapes.  The 
natural  growth  of  timber  consists  of  c-ypresa,  hickory,  black- 
walnut,  maple,  cotton-wood,  magnolia  and  sassafi-as.  The 
country  generally  Ixung  healthy  and  prodiiftive.  The  southern 
part  oi  the  State,  for  about  100  miles  from  the  Gulf  shore,  is 
mostly  a  sandy  pine  barren,  interspersed  with  cypi'css  swamps, 
open  prairies  and  inundated  marshes,  and  a  few  hills  of  a  moder- 
ate elevation.  This  regicm  is  generally  healthy,  and,  by  culti- 
vation, produces  sugar,  cotton,  indigo,  and  Indian  corn.  The 
same  can  be  said  of  much  of  Louisiana  ;  biit  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  State  consists  of  a  sea-marsh,  on  the  margin  of  the 
Gulf,  but  further  inland,  of  extensive  and  fertile  prairies,  which 
contain  many  flourishing  settlements.  The  ncrthern  part  has 
an  imdulating  surface,  and  a  heavy  natural  growth  of  white,  red 
and  yellow  oak,  cotton-wood,  hickor}-,  black-walnut,  poplar, 
cypress,  magnolia  and  sassafras.  Cotton,  sugar,  rice,  corn  and 
indigo  are  the  chief  })rodut^tions.  Yellow  and  other  malignant 
fevers  often  prevail  along  the  Gulf  coast  and  along  the  Delta  of 
the  Mississippi,  as  far  north  as  Vicksburg,  Miss. 

The  general  aspect  of  Texas,  extending  on  the  south  to  the 
]-lio  Grande,  is  that  of  a  vast  inclined  })lane,  gradually  sloping 
from  the  moiuitains,  eastward  to  the  Gulf,  and  traversed  by 
numerous  rivers,  all  having  a  southeast  direction.  It  may  bo 
naturally  divided  into  three  regions :  The  first,  which  is  gener- 
ally level,  extends  along  the  coast  with  a  brea.lth  varying  from 
40  to  100  miles,  being  narrowest  at  the  soutlnvest.  The  soil  of 
this  section  is  principally  a  rich  alluvium,  with  scarcely  a  stone, 
and  singularly  free  from  stagnant  swamps.  Broad  woodlands 
fringe  the  banks  of  the  rivers  on  the  northern  portion,  between 
which  are  extensive  and  rich  pasture  lands.  Cotton  and  sugar 
are  produced  in  this  region.  The  second  division  is  the  undu- 
laring  prairie  region  which  extends  for  150  to  200  miles  further 
inland  ;  its  wide  grassy  tracts  alternating  with  others  that  are 
thickly  timbered.  Here  vast  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are 
raised  on  many  of  the  large  estates.  Cotton  is  also  grown  in 
largo  quantities,  as  well  as  Indian  corn,  <tc.  The  third,  or 
inountainous  region,  situated  princii)ally  on  the  west  and  south- 
west, formmg  part  of  the  Sierra  Madro  of  Mexico,  is  but  little 


ii 


212 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


explored,  bcinf:^  mostly  inliabited  by  roaming  tribes  of  Indians. 
The  mountain  sides  arc  mostly  clothed  with  forests  ;  and  there 
are  few,  if  any  districts  of  coamtry,  of  the  same  extent  as  Texas, 
with  so  little  unproductive  land. 

Texas  is  divided  into  a  wet  and  dry  season  ;  the  former  lasts 
from  December  to  March,  and  the  latter  from  March  to  Decem- 
ber. Snow  is  seldom  seen  except  on  the  mountains  in  the  west. 
The  country  in  in  most  parts  covered  with  a  luxuriant  native 
grass  ;  and  in  general  amply  supplied  with  timber,  among  which 
are  the  live-oak,  white,  black,  and  post-oak,  hickory,  Avalnut, 
sycamore,  cypress,  cotton-wood,  itc.  The  northwestern  portion 
of  the  State  is  justly  celebrated  for  its  grazing  and  wheat  lands, 
where  is  found  pure  water  and  a  healthy  climate. 

The  "  Northers"  is  a  fierce  chilly  wind  pecuhar  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  visiting  Texas  and  the  coast  southward  during  cold 
weather.  These  storms,  which  often  assume  the  character  of 
tornadoes,  make  the  climate  of  this  part  of  the  country  very 
variable,  the  atmosphere,  during  their  prevalence,  being  ren- 
dered dry  and  cold. 

Temperature. — Foii:.  Belknap,  Texas,  in  latitude  33^  8',  has  a 
mean  annual  temperature  of  (i'P  Fahr. ;  Fort  Graham,  in  lati- 
tude 31°  5G',  GC°  Fahr. ;  San  Antonio,  latitude  29°  25',  GJ)  Fahr.; 
Corpus  Christi,  in  latitude  27"  47',  70  Fahr. ;  Fort  Brown  (on 
the  Rio  Grande\  in  latitude  25^  54',  74'-^  Fahr.  ;  thus  showing  a 
variation  of  mean  annual  temperature  from  G4°  to  74^^  Fahr., 
in  the  eastern  part  of  Texas,  while  in  the  interior  the  land 
gradually  rises  and  the  temperature  decreases,  aflbrding  gener- 
ally a  healthy  and  invigorating  climate. 

"The  Northers." 

"  The  fierce  north  winds  that  prevail  from.  November  to 
March  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  surrounding  coasts,  usually 
at  intervals  of  about  a  week,  are  termed  '  Northers.'  These 
winds  are  well  known  to  navigators,  and  as  being  particularly 
violent  on  the  Mexican  coast,  from  the  Eio  Grande  to  Vera 
Cruz,  often  causing  shipwreck  and  fearful  loss  of  life.  They 
even  cross  the  Isthmus  of  Central  America,  and  Mexico  at 
Tehuantcpec,  and  bloAV  with  gi'cat  violence  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  '  Northers '  being  the  land  winds  fi'om  the  Terri- 
tories of  the  United  States,  lower  the  temperature  as  they  rush 
south  over  the  warm  waters  of  the  GuH  of  Mexico.  Tliougli 
they  have  a  tendency  to  cool  the  air  considerably  in  Cuba  and 
other  West  India  Islands,  yet  they  are  greatly  tempered  by 
the  large  surface  of  warm  water  over  which  they  blow  before 
reaching  the  sliores  of  Cuba,  which  is,  mostly  exposed,  on  tho 


THE  NORTHERS. 


213 


other  hand,  the  *  Northers '  arc  in  all  thoir  vigor  along  the  States 
bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  because  these  land  winds 
sweep  across  them  without  meeting  an^y  influence  in  their  course 
to  mitigate  their  coldness  and  severity.  In  youthcm  Texas, 
especially,  which  is  alteniately  subject  to  the  warm  south  winds 
fi'om  the  Gulf,  and  the  cold  '  Northers,'  the  fluctuations  of  tem- 
perature are  of  the  most  extraordinary  character.  Than  Texas, 
there  is,  perhaps,  no  country  on  th.e  glol)o  where  the  inhabitants 
are  exposed  to  such  sudden  changes  from  heat  to  cold,  and  to 
whom  the  lines  of  Milton  are  more  appUcable.     They 

"  '  Feel  by  turns  tlir  hitter  clianjic 
(Jf  fierce  cxtrt'iuoH,  cxtronicH  by  change  more  fierce, 
From  beds  of  raving  fire  to  starve  in  ice.' 

"  The  temperature,  along  with  the  direction  of  the  winds  in 
Southern  Texas,  in  1855,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  r^ture  of 
the  climate  in  these  regions.  The  observations  were  obtained 
at  the  Smithsonian  Collection  at  Washington. 


Days. 

loth  January, 

20th 

21st 

22d 


7  A.  U. 

52  ^  S.  E. 
W  Calm. 
32^  North. 
18°  N.  W. 


2  P.  M. 

72'  S.  E. 
81"  S.  W. 
U°  N.  W. 
5G°  South. 


9  P.  M. 

58^^  S.  E. 
00"  S.  AV. 
32^  N.  W. 
38'^  South. 


"  From  these  figures  Ave  perceive  that  the  temperature  fell 
from  81^  Fahr.  at  2  p.  m.  of  the  20tli  with  the  south  wind,  to 
18^  Fahr.  on  the  morning  of  the  22d  with  the  '  Northers,'  mak- 
ing a  difference  of  01  degrees  in  the  course  of  41  hours." 

"  Before  leaving  the  island  of  Cuba,  accounts  reached  me  of 
a  severe  storm  having  occurred  at  Philadelphia  in  January, 
1855,  a  fact  that  drew  my  attention  to  the  connection  between 
the  '  Northers '  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  winter  storms  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  'Northers'  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  I  now  find,  correspond  to  the  cold  irc.skrhj  winds  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  two  are  propa^/aieil  si muUfmeoushj  from  west 
to  east  over  the  Gulf,  and  the  whole  territories  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada. 

"  As  has  been  already  shown,  the  northerly  winds  cause  a 
great  depression  of  temperature  in  all  the  Southern  States,  in 
winter.  The  frosts,  by  -v.hich  they  are  accompanied,  kill  down 
the  stalks  of  the  sugar-cane  and  tlie  cotton  plant,  and,  occa- 
sionally, orange  groves,  rendering  the  fields  as  wintry  in  their 
aspect  as  those  of  Britain  during  the  cold  season." — "North 
America,  its  A'jricuUure  and  Climate,''  hy  Robert  Hus.sell,  Ediiir 
hunjh,  1857. 


i 


litl 


214 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE, 


Arizona  and  Nevr  Mexico. 

This  moimtftjuous  portiou  of  the  Uuited  States  forms,  iu  a 
topogi-aphical  pouit  of  view,  a  most  interesting  feature  for 
investigation,  it  being  entirely  composed  of  elevated  plains  and 
valleys,  encompassed  by  loft}'  mountains,  forming  part  of  an 
immense  chain  known  as  the  Sierra  Macb'e,  or  Mountains  of 
North  America.  Fort  Fillmore,  situated  near  El  Paso,  Mexico, 
in  N.  Lat.  32^  13',  stands  elevated  3,937  feet  above  the  ocean, 
while  Santa  Fe,  further  to  the  north,  is  elevated  G,84G  feet,  and 
Fort  Massachusetts,  in  the  northern  part  of  Now  Mexico,  is 
elevated  8,3G5  feet  above  the  ocean  level,  beintj  surrounded  by 
passes  and  elevated  j^eaks  rising  to  10,000  feet  and  ujiwards, 
showing  the  great  altitude  of  this  Avhole  section  of  country,  of 
which  the  Eocky  Mountains  are  the  culminating  point. 

In  a  country  thus  diversified,  running  through  eight  degi'ees 
of  latitude,  from  32^  to  40^,  but  little  reliance  can  bo  placed 
upon  the  '.omperature  of  any  locality  until  first  ascertaining  its 
topographical  peculiarities.  The  mean  annual  temperature  of 
Fort  Fillmore  is  64P  Fahr.,  Santa  Fo  52°,  and  Fort  Massachu- 
setts 41^,  while  Great  Salt  Lake  City,  in  N.  Lat.  40°  40',  attains 
a  mean  annual  temperature  of  53"  Fahr.  The  agricultural  pro- 
ductions of  this  region  are  as  varied  as  its  climate,  producing, 
in  the  southern  parts,  Indian  corn,  tobacco  and  the  grape,  while 
wheat  and  the  mcn-e  hardy  cereals  and  grasses  flourish  in  colder 
localities,  more  elevated  or  farther  north.  Horses,  cattle  and 
sheep  are  raised  iu  many  parts  of  the  country,  the  hilly  portions 
being  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  increase  of  the  latter  kind  of 
stock. 

The  soil  for  the  most  part  is  poor  and  unfit  for  cultivation, 
owing  partly  to  the  want  of  water,  the  valleys  and  side  hills 
alone  being  cultivated  to  any  extent.  The  former  are  rendered 
productive  in  many  places  by  the  process  of  irrigation,  which  is 
extensively  pursued  in  New  Mexico  and  otlier  Territories.  In 
the  Territory  of  Arizona  the  temperature  for  the  most  part  is 
very  intense  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  yet  still  there 
are  fertilo  valleys  where  vegetation  flourishes. 

The  mineral  productions  are  rich  and  varied — gold,  silver  and 
copper  being  found  in  many  localities,  while  further  investiga- 
tion will,  no  doubt,  reveal  immense  deposits  of  the  precious 
metals. 

Indian  trilies,  of  a  warlike  character,  roam  over  the  greater 
portion  of  this  immense  region,  or  havo  theii'  fixed  habitations 
as  they  become  partially  civilized. 


PART    XI. 


CLIMATE    OF  THE  PACIFIC  STATES. 


California. 

The  climate  of  California,  running  through  ton  degi'ees  of 
latitude,  is  varial)le,  but  not  unhealthy,  and  most  of  the  diseases 
that  prevail  are  not  produced  by  its  influence.  It  is  n  uch 
warmer,  of  course,  than  in  the  same  latitude  on  the  Atlantic  ; 
and  at  the  south  the  heat  is  sometimes  intense.  Near  the 
Colorado,  falling  into  the  Gulf  of  California,  the  thermometer 
often  rises  to  VHP  Fahr. ;  and  in  the  Valley  of  the  Sacramento, 
to  110^,  in  the  shade.  Along  the  Pacific  coast  it  is  not  so 
warm.  During  the  dry  season,  from  the  first  of  March  to  the 
first  of  November,  the  mornings  are  clear,  and  the  heat  gener- 
ally intolerable ;  but  at  noon  the  sky  becomes  overcast,  the 
strong  and  unpleasant,  but  bracing,  northwesterl}'  gales  set  in, 
and  condense  the  vapors  which  have  risen  during  the  morning, 
and  the  thermometer  falls  very  rapidly.  The  nights  are  almost 
always  cool.  During  the  rainy  months  the  plains  and  low 
grounds  are  usually  enveloped  in  fogs  and  mists,  and  every 
little  arroya  is  swollen  far  beyond  its  ordinary  limits,  while 
the  large  streams  roll  down  a  vast  flood  to  the  ocean. 

M.  do  Mopas,  one  of  the  most  learned  and  scientific  travellers 
who  have  visited  this  country,  insists  that  all  that  part  of  Cali- 
fornia lying  between,  the  coast  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  is  of 
admiral)lo  fertility,  and  perfectly  proper  for  colonization. 
Capt.  "Wilkes  also  informs  us  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  so 
great  that  eighty  bushels  of  wheat  is  the  average  yield  per  acre. 
"  The  hills  and  uplands  afl;brd  the  finest  pasturage  ;  but  they 
are  not  calculated  to  ]iroduce  anything  except  gramineous 
plants.  The  elevated  plains  are  covered  with  immense  fields 
of  wild  oats  and  wild  nuistard,  of  a  most  thrifty  growth,  which 
often  climb  up  the  sides  of  the  mountains  to  a  considerable 
height.  The  soil  of  the  low  grounds  is  a  rich,  dark  loam,  that 
becomes  dry  hke  pov/der  in  the  Summer  season  ;  but  the  Win- 


21G 


INII-UENCE  OP  CLIMATE. 


tor  and  8pnnp»  rains  soon  convert  thoni  into  Moomin;^  gar- 
dons. 

"  Irri;4utioii  will  bo  noodrd  uli  ov(!r  tlio  coimtry,  in  order  to 
rondcu"  afj^ricultiiiul  ((ut(!rpriHos  (oriincntly  HiicccsKful  ;  but  wlicro 
tliis  i.s  ])r!ieti(!!d)l(!  jUmudiint  (^'opH  will  be.  obtiiincul.  Tlio  tnli: 
niiirKli(^s  could  rciidily  be  eonverted  into  rice;  lields,  and  tlie 
interval  lands  will  produce  most  of  i'le  cereal  {^'rains  with  but 
a  tohni.blo  culturo.  Honin  and  blu<!  llax  aro  well  suited  to  tlu; 
connlrv.  In  Southern  Calit'ornia  the;  vin(i  (fiHn  ciinj'cni)  thrives 
wonderfully,  and  ^'reat  (|uantities  of  wine  and  brandy  aro 
nnid(!.  The  volcanic  soil  is  well  adaj)ted  for  vinc^yards,  and  tlio 
attention  of  th((  inhabitants  will  jjrobably  be  still  nioro  diverted 
to  tlui  cultivation  of  tlui  i^rape,  wheiKiVer  tlu!  excitement  in 
regard  to  tlui  g(ild  deposits  has  .sul)si(l(;d. 

"California  cannot  be  tcirmed  well-wooded,  althongh  the 
liigh-lying  sections  between  Lhe  Pacific  and  tin-  Sierra  Nevada 
aro  dotted  (piite  frecpiciitly  witli  forests  of  cixceilent  timber,  and 
tlio  lianks  of  the  mountains  and  the;  do(!p  canons  opening  into 
the  valhivs  beiKsath,  ai(!  fringed  hen*  and  theix!  with  strips  of 
woodland.  The  «'(mrscs  of  th(!  streams,  also,  arc;  usually  liiUid 
with  belts  of  stately  trcics,  or  thiciuits  of  shrubi)y  und(!rgrowtli. 
Tlio  most  valuable  of  timb(!r  trees  are  live  oak,  pin<!,  ash,  cedar, 
cypress,  sycamon;,  willow  au<l  cotton-wood.  Of  th(!  fruit  trtiob 
apples,  pears,  ])lunis,  peaches,  oranges,  limes,  hgs  and  olivtis 
thrive  with  gniat  luxuriance  wliero  thoy  receive;  prosper  can;  and 
attention.  All  the;  V(!getables  found  in  the  same  latitudes  in 
other  i>arts  of  the  world  llourish  hero  ecjually  well,  often  attain- 
ing a  V(;ry  largo  si/e. 

"  Tho  whole  country  is  rich  in  iiowering  ])lants  and  creep- 
ers. Beautiful  mosses  exhibit  their  long  trails  from  the  tops 
of  tho  highest  treris,  and  the  mistletoe  shelters  itself  b(!no;ith 
tho  shade  of  the  noble  oak,  climbs  up  its  rugged  trunk,  and 
nestles  amid  its  tufted  canoj)y.  Among  th(!  grasses  on  the 
fiats  and  the  wild  oats  of  tlu!  hilly  shapes  and  mountain  sides, 
aro  mingled  the  most  valuable  buJbous  rcxjts,  and  the  Imghest 
and  sweetest  flowers.  There  are  tuli])S  and  hyacinths,  the  lily 
and  tho  narcissus,  golden  po))pies  and  delicately  tinted  daisi(;s, 
crimson  and  scarlet  pinks,  tlui  fragrant  graphalium,  and  the 
medical  canchalagua  ;  and  their  beauty,  too,  is  enhanced,  in  a 
great  degree,  by  tliii  fme  contrast  presented  by  snow-crowiK^d 
jjeaks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  that  glisten  like  burnished  silver  on 
the  very  border  of  the  dark  lino  of  vegetation,  and,  more  than  all, 
by  tho  ])eautiful  ultra-marme  tints  which,  in  a  clear  day,  dye 
tho  whole  landscape,  from  the  ocean  surf  to  the  loftiest  moun- 
tain height." —  Wilh'.H'  Exncdition. 

Among  the  princij^al  wild  animals  of  California  are  tho  fien.'o 


'  -if" 


FOUT  YUMA — COIXJllADO   I)I:HKI.T. 


217 


frr'v/.'Ay  })Oiir,  llio  ivnllcnfd  elk,  (lie  hliKrL-t.'iiled  door,  tlio  Hava^<5 
])antli(tr  and  jjuiiia,  Hks  Caliroiiiia  lion,  tlio  nhy  antclopo,  and 
tlio  noisy  coyoto  or  i>rairi(i  wolf.  HarcH,  H(|uiiTols  and  mar- 
njots  arc  abnnd.int.  Arnonf<  the  frulluinsd  tribes  arc  tlio  on^\o, 
liawk,  vnltiuci,  ciow,  plicasiinl,  )iailrid}<<;,  ^'[oohc,  ducK,  polican, 
curlow,  crane,  turkey,  pigf.'on  and  i)lover,  hesides  Hin^dn^'  I)irdH 
of  dinrr(Mit  hinds.  'V\n-  hIiciuhs  abound  in  linff-ilavored  lisli  ; 
and  the  deiii.-ate  and  IuHei(ju.s  salmon  art;  (juite  plenty  in  the; 
more  nortli(!rn  waters. 

Fort  Yuma— Colorado  Deicit  (Southern  California.) 

"On  tli(!  rij-dit  hank  of  the  (Colorado,  and  in  a  b(>nd  opjtosite 
th(!  mouth  of  the  (iila  Kiver,  rises  nj)  a  low  ii-re^ndar  hill,  from 
70  to  HO  feet  in  heij^dit.  On  tlu!  water  h'u\o  tlmre  is  a  per|K!n- 
dieular  <-lin".  The  other  .sides  are  less  stec|(,  hut  e(|ually  iu;.,';^ed. 
'J'his  hill  in  of  Plutonie  ori^^dn,  and  pnssents  a  Mi-ak,  (h'eary 
apj)earance.  'I'Ik;  Huil"i"e(!  is  eoveretl  with  sharj),  volcanic^  roeks, 
euttin^'  like  ^lass  und(;r  the  tread,  and  is  destitute  of  (jvery 
form  of  vef^etation,  exc<!pt  the  enp/iorhia,  a  rank  ])oison,  and 
us(!d  by  the  Indians  as  an  antidote,  a}.(!iinst  tins  bite  <>(  the 
rattl(!-snake.  Such  is  the  site  of  the  military  ))<)Ht  of  FouT 
Yuma,  situated  in  N.  Lat.  :tJ^  4:r ;  W.  Lon^'.  lii'  4;]'. 

"  The  climate  of  this  region  is  in  aceonhmeo  with  everythinfj 
else  relating'  to  it.  JMieamped  there;  durin;^'  the  three!  winter 
mouths,  we  found  the  weather  pj(ener;illy  mild,  althouj^h  tlio 
(dian;^es  in  t(!m])eraturo  wc^re  very  f,'reat.  The  thermometer 
durinj^  ]tai't  of  this  <im(!  was  as  hif^^li  as  !)0 '  I-'ahr.,  and  then  as 
low  as  'A()\  Th(!  days  wen;  sometimes  uncond'ortably  warm  and 
the  nights  intensely  eold.  Jiiving  and  sleepijig  in  tents  all  the 
time,  we  seldom  had  o(;ca  ,ion  to  have  a  camp-iire  e.\(!(!])t  at 
early  dawn.  Owing  to  th(!  (;le;i,rness  of  the  skies,  the  radiation 
is  extremely  rapid,  and  ic(!  (juiekly  forms. 

"Having  r(!turn<;d  tiie  following  August  to  Fort  Yuma,  tho 
thermometer  in  the  shade;  at  tho  ])ost  was  found  to  be  110° 
Fahr.,  and  over  120'  in  the  shade  along  tlu;  rivtjr.  The  lieat, 
eommeneing  to  bo  exc(JHBivo  in  May,  becomes  almost  unendiir- 
c})le  in  tlie  months  of  June,  July  and  August.  Even  in  winter 
the  snn  is  so  hot,  and  the  direct  as  well  as  reflected  light  upon 
the  same  i)lains  so  dazzling,  that,  excepting  a  (.'ouple  of  hours 
after  daybreak  and  an  hour  before  sunset,  it  is  only  possible  to 
see  objects  through  tlu;  best  instrumental  telescopes  in  (ho 
most  distorted  shapes  -a  thin  white  pole  appearing  as  a  tall 
column  of  tlio  whitest  fleece. 

*'  Li  this  belt  of  country  rain  s(;ldom  falls.  In  tho  distauco 
dark  donds  may  ])o  seen  hanging  over  the  California  and 
Sonora  Mountains,    but   they    soldom   visit  tho   iuterniediato 


(  I  il 


\-\ 


I 


i 


218 


INFLUENCE  OP  CLIMATE. 


localities.  Durinpf  the  wliole  of  one  year  they  had  but  two 
inches  of  rain.  After  our  arrival  a  few  drojis  from  some  passing 
cloud  fell  in  the  two  winter  months,  December  and  January, 
and  in  the  followuig  February  .07  of  an  inch.  The  coast  rains 
take  place  during  the  winter  ;  and  the  rainy  season,  in  Sonora, 
the  Mexican  State  south  of  the  lioundary  line,  in  the  months  of 
July,  August  and  September.  Spring,  in  the  intermediate  sec- 
tion, puts  forth  its  thick  green  foliage  in  February,  without  any 
rains  to  refresh  and  cool  the  parched  ground. 

"  The  atmosphere  is  often  so  clear  that  you  are  able  to  see  at 
long  distances.  In  the  morning  a  beautiful  sight  is  afforded  by 
the  miirir/e.  It  has  the  efl'ect,  apparently,  of  raising  the  moun- 
tains and  bringing  them  more  plainly  to  view ;  and  many  are 
the  fantastic  and  peculiar  shapes  that  are  represented. 

"  Instead  of  storms  of  rain  during  the  Winter  and  Spring,  they 
have  those  of  dust  and  sand.  These  are  caused  by  higji  and 
strong  winds,  sweeping  over  the  desert  plains,  coming  princi- 
pally from  the  northwest,  raising  and  carrying  before  tliem,  like 
mist,  clouds  of  pulverized  sand  and  dust.  You  can  watch  them 
in  progress  as  they  approach  for  hours  beforehand,  and  v/hen 
they  reach  you  the  dust  penetrates  into  every  crevice,  the  finest 
silk  not  being  impervious  to  it.  They  last,  generally,  a  day  ; 
sometimes  three.  The  winds  blow  up  quickly  and  violently,  and 
it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  work  with  nice  instruments.  These 
dust  storms  were  our  great  drawbacks,  as  it  was  impossible  to 
see  many  feet  distant,  and  only  at  the  risk  of  being  blinded. 
The  gusts  of  wind  which  produce  this  unpleasant  eflect  in  AVin- 
ter  are  in  Summer  like  the  Siniooms  of  Salrnrt — they  sweep  over 
and  scorch  the  land,  burning  like  the  hot  blasts  of  a  furnace." — 
Emory's  Report,  U,  States  and  Mexican  Boimdary — 1857. 

The  town  of  Los  Angeles,  situated  in  north  latitude  34°  5', 
west  longitude  118^  IG',  is  the  centre  of  £  n  extensive  and  rich 
grazing,  agricultural,  and  grape-growing  country.  The  quantity 
of  grapes  and  fruit  generally  shipped  to  San  Irancisco,  during 
the  proper  season,  is  already  enormous,  supporting  two  large 
coast  steamers.  Over  100,000  gallons  of  wine  and  5,000  gallons 
of  brandy  were  produced  in  185-1,  and  the  culture  of  tli^  grape 
bids  fair  to  outstrip  all  others.  Cotton,  sugar-cane,  tobacco, 
flax  and  the  cereals  yield  productive  croj^s  ;  and  the  olive,  as 
well  as  most  other  kinds  of  fruit,  grow  in  abundance,  rendering 
this  section  the  garden  of  California. 

The  country  farther  inland,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  and  moun- 
tains, is  as  productive  as  any  other  in  Califarnia.  The  vast 
plains  are  literally  covered  w  ith  cattle,  and  many  of  the  ranche- 
ros  count  their  yearly  increase  by  thousands.  These  cattle  are 
diiven  to  the  mining  districts  and  San  Francisco ;  but  during 


AQRICULTUr.E  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


219 


the  not  unusual  droughts  of  Suinnior  ^roat  suffering  is  expe- 
rienced, and  great  numbers  of  thchj  perish. 

The  rainy  season  commences  in  this  region  early  in  November, 
and  continues  until  the  middle  of  March.  The  (quantity  of  rain 
that  falls  does  not  a  verago  over  15  inches.  During  that  season 
southeast  gales  prevail,  and  sometimes  during  the  Summer 
months  southerly  weather  will  bring  up  heavy  rain. 


I      '- 


Agriculture  in  California. 

The  amount  of  land  in  California  adapted  to  the  pur|)0SG8  of 
agriculture  is  estimated  at  41,022,400  acres,  exclusive  of  the 
swamp  and  overflowed  lands,  estimated  at  5,000,000,  which, 
when  reclaimed,  will  produce  every  variety  of  crop.  On  the 
Sacramento  the  experiment  is  being  successfully  made  to  culti- 
vate rice  with  Chinese  labor.  The  amount  of  grazing  land  is 
estimated  at  .^0,000,000  acres.  The  amount  of  land  under 
cultivation  in  1850  was  578,903  acres  ;  and  of  that  enclosed  for 
the  pm'poses  of  agriculture  about  120,000.  The  amount  in 
wheat  was  170,809  acres,  and  the  product  3,979,032  bushels  ;  in 
])arley  154,074  acres,  and  the  product  4  039,078  bushels ;  in  oats 
37,002  acres,  and  the  product  1,203,359  bushels. 

The  President  of  the  State  Agricultural  Society,  in  his 
address  of  1850,  says: — "It  is  now  a  v.'eU  ascertained  fact, 
established  by  several  years'  experience,  that  California  stands 
without  a  rival  in  respect  to  her  capacity  for  producing  Avlieat 
and  other  cereals.  She  produces  it  in  larger  quantities  to  the 
acre,  of  better  quality,  with  more  certainty,  and  with  less  labor 
than  any  other  country  in  the  known  world." 

The  cultivation  of  the  grape  and  its  manufacture  into  wines 
and  brandies  is  rapidly  assuming  a  degree  of  importance,  and 
increasing  to  such  an  extent  that  these  products  must  =;oon 
become  one  of  the  most  reliable  and  lucrative  branches  of  the 
resources  of  the  State.  The  experience  of  the  last  few  years 
has  proved  conclusively  that  this  country  produces  this  fruit  in 
tlie  gi-eatest  variety  and  abundance ;  and  in  a  few  years  will, 
no  doubt,  sui-pass  the  most  extensive  wine-producing  countries 
of  the  world. 

The  two  great  staples,  cotton  and  flax,  will  also  soon  render 
the  country  independent  of  other  places  for  her  manufactures  ; 
whilst  the  i^roduction  of  silk  bids  fair  to  go  hand  in  hand  with 
both.  The  tme  wealth  of  the  country  has  but  commenced  its 
development,  and  in  a  short  period,  no  doubt,  she  will  success- 
fully compete  Avith  the  Atlantic  States  and  Europe  for  the 
markets  of  the  Pacific. 


ii 


^M 


?! 


220 


I 


INFLUENCE   OF  CiUMATE. 


Fruit  Culture. 


"  In  determining  tlio  capacity  of  California  to  produce  human 
foo(],"  says  a  late  writer,  "  fruit  production  must  not  be  over- 
looked. The  ammal  statistics  of  the  number  of  trees  and  vines 
and  their  product  are  carefully  taken  by  the  State  ;  and,  in  so 
-^oing,  it  presents  an  example  worthy  of  all  imitation  by  every 
(dier  State  and  by  the  General  Government.  The  hst  shows 
the  remarkable  adaptation  of  California  to  all  fruits,  both  of  the 
warm  and  temperate  regions.  Among  the  frui-".  trees  are  the 
apricot,  quince,  nectarine,  cherry,  plum,  pear,  peach,  apple, 
chorimoya,  persimmon,  prune,  pineapple,  pomegranate,  olive, 
orange,  lemon,  citron,  aloe,  and  gooseberry ;  and  among  the 
vines  are  the  grape,  strawberry  and  raspberry.  There  are  also 
the  walnut,  almond  and  pecan.  The  value  of  the  fruit,  the  tons 
of  grapes,  and  tha  gallons  of  wine  and  brand}',  are  also  taken  in 
its  annual  statistics." 

From  tlie  returns  of  the  counties  in  the  Surveyor  General's 
Beport,  the  soil  and  climate  adapted  to  fruit-gi'owing  appear  to 
be  much  more  extensive  than  are  suited  to  profitable  grain  pro- 
duction. Tlie  middle  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  is,  perhaps,  too 
hot  and  dry  for  fruits,  but  the  slopes  at  the  base  of  its  moun- 
tains are  most  excellent.  Smaller  valleys,  with  their  higher 
elevations,  are  no  less  suitable.  The  great  length  of  the  State, 
north  and  south,  in  connection  with  its  mountain  elevations, 
adapts  the  State  to  the  growth  of  the  large  and  varied  hst  of 
fruits  just  stated. 

The  Grape. — The  number  of  grape  vines  in  California  in 
1861  was  10,592,688,  of  which  Los  Angeles  County  had  2,570,000 
and  Sonoma  1,701,661.  All  European  varieties  of  the  grape 
grow  well  in  this  State,  as  also  those  of  the  Atlantic  States, 
This  fact  is  significant  of  the  remarkable  adaptation  of  its 
climate  and  soil  to  the  culture  of  the  grape,  and  indicates  that 
California  will  become  the  greatest  wine  country  of  the  world. 
Mr.  Hittel,  in  summing  up  its  superiority,  says: — "California 
vineyards  produce  ordinarily  twice  as  much  as  the  \'ineyards  of 
any  other  grape  district,  if  general  rejiort  be  true.  The  grape 
crop  never  fails,  as  it  does  in  every  other  country.  Vineyards 
in  every  other  country  reauire  more  labor,  for  here  the  vine  is 
not  trained  to  a  stake,  but  stands  alone." 

To  set  forth  more  particularly  the  peculiar  advantages  of 
California,  as  well  as  to  place  before  the  vine-grower  in  the 
Atlantic  States  the  causes  of  them,  it  is  proper  to  dwell  more  at 
length  on  the  soil  and  climate  of  California  as  they  influence 
the  success  of  grape-growing. 

1.  The  Soil. — "The  vine,"  says  Mr.  Hittel,  "likes  a  sandy  or 


or 


FRUn'  CUIiTURE. 


221 


graYclly  (not  very  moist)  soil,  and  never  thrives  in  wet,  loamy, 
or  stiff  clay  soil/'  Rich  land  docs  not  seem  to  be  well  adapted 
to  the  vino  there.  He  remarks : — "  The  soil  of  the  vineyards  at 
Los  Anpfeles  and  Anaheim  is  a  deep,  li^ht,  warm  sand.  To  the 
inexperienced  eye  it  looks  as  though  it  were  too  poor  to  pro- 
duce any  valuable  vegetable  growth.  In  Sonoma  and  Napa 
Valleys  the  vineyards  are  planted  m  a  red,  gravelly  clay  near 
the  foot  of  the  mountains,  or  in  a  light,  sandy  loam  in  the  centre 
of  the  valley.  Of  late  the  vine-growers  of  these  valleys  have 
done  without  iii'igation.  In  Santa  Clara  Valley  most  of  the 
vines  have  been  placed  in  a  rich,  black  loam,  but  the  vuieyards 
are  unhealthy.  The  Sacramento  vines  arc  planted  in  sandy  loam ; 
those  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  m  sandy  loam  or  in  gravelly  clay." 

These  soils  are  very  general  in  California,  and  Mr.  Hittel, 
speaking  of  the  extent  of  the  grape  region  there,  says  : — "  The 
grape  region  extends  from  the  southern  boundary  a  distance  of 
five  hundred  and  ninety-five  miles  north,  with  an  average 
breadth  from  east  to  west  of  about  one  hundred  miles." 

2.  Climate. — The  influence  of  chmato,  in  its  altitudes,  heats 
and  rains,  on  grape-growing,  has  not  received  that  systematic 
consideration  Avhicli  is  due  to  its  importance.  The  Western 
States  have  at  times,  in  the  Summer  months,  a  moist,  sweltry 
atmosphere,  during  which  the  gi'ape  rot  is  most  fatal.  The 
general  ele-atiau  of  these  States  is  from  five  hundred  to  seven 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Whether  a  greater  elevation, 
from  one  thousand  to  two  thousand  feet  above  it,  would  not  be 
free  from  the  rot,  is  a  question  not  yet  determined.  In  a  dry 
chmate,  like  that  of  California,  the  altitude  is  immaterial,  for 
the  dryness  is  sufficient  in  the  lowest  localities  to  shield  the 
grape  from  rot.  If  these  localities  have  a  rich  and  moist  soil, 
then,  as  we  have  seen,  the  vines  are  unhcaltliy  in  California. 
Mr.  Hittel,  alluding  to  the  oidiiuiu  f't\ys  : — "  This  disease,  which 
has  done  such  great  damage  ixi  France,  appeared  in  1859,  but 
has  done  no  injury  as  yet  save  in  a  few  small  young  vineyards. 
I  have  heard  of  it  only  in  Santa  Clara,  Sonoma,  and  Alameda 
Counties,  where  the  vkic-s  are  planted  in  a  wet,  black  loam  or 
stiff  clay.'' 

This  disease  seems  to  be  one  resembling  a  combination  of 
our  blight  and  mildew. 

As  California  appears  to  be  free  from  the  rot,  a  comparison 
of  its  climate  as  to  dryness  with  the  Atlantic  climate,  both  hi 
the  older  States  and  in  Europe,  may  not  be  useless,  either  in 
showing  the  superiority  of  California,  or  in  directing  attention 
in  these  older  States  to  the  true  cause  of  the  rot.  The  follow- 
ing tables  arc  taken  from  Mr.  Blodget  partly,  and  also  from  the 
meteorology  of  the  Smithsonian  pubUcations  : — 


H 


222 


INFLUENCE  OF  CUMATE. 


AMERICAN  PACIFIC   CLIMATES. 

Caltforxta. 

S|>ring. 

Summer. 

11^  O      KfL       A*.tkl 

Autumn. 

Winter. 

Total. 

Sacramento,  . 

33 

0.1 

3.2 

G.9 

13.5 

San  Francisco, 

4.G 

0.7 

3.7 

8.8 

17.8 

Los  Angeles, . 

2.5 

0.1 

l.G 

5.5 

9.7 

New  Mexico. 

El  Paso, 

O.G 

G.G 

4.9 

0.3 

12.4 

Albuquerque, 

O.G 

5.G 

1.2 

1.0 

8.4 

AMERICAN  ATLANTIC   CLIMATES. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,   . 

11.9 

14.2 

10.0 

11.3 

47.5 

Cleveland,       '[       . 

9.1 

ll.G 

9.8 

G.9 

27.4 

Ann  Ai-bor,  Mich., 

7.3 

11.2 

7.0 

3.1 

28.6 

Pittsburgh,  Penn., 

9.5 

12.3 

7.G 

7.4 

3G.8 

St.  Louis,  Mo., 

12.7 

14.G 

8.7 

7.0 

42.5 

EUROPEAN 

CLIMATES 

Turin,  Piedmont,   . 

8.2 

9.0 

11.5 

7.8 

36.5 

Valle^r  of  the  Rhone,     . 

10.2 

9.5 

10.4 

4.3 

34.4 

Vevay,  Switzerland, 

7.9 

10.8 

11.1 

3.9 

33.8 

Manheim,  Rhine,   . 

G.3 

8.0 

7.4 

5.3 

27.0 

Bordeaux,  "West  France, 

7.3 

7.4 

10.3 

9.0 

34.0 

Dijon,  East  France, 

7.1 

7.5 

9.3 

7.3 

31.2 

Chalons,  N.  East  France, 

5.4 

G.2 

G.l 

5.G 

23.3 

These  Tables  exhibit  r.n  average  fall  of  rain  during  Summer 
ia  California  of  0.3  of  an  inch,  and  in  the  Atlantic  States  of  13 
inches  nearly,  and  in  European  ine-gi'owing  countries  of  7.7 
inches.  The  cUmate  of  California  would  be  more  favorable  if 
it  had  more  rain  in  Summer  ;  but  in  moist  situations,  or  where 
irrigation  may  be  employed,  it  presents  all  that  invites  to  grape 
production. 

San  Jose  Valley,  California. 

37'  North  Latitude. 

"  The  climate  in  this  valley,"  says  a  late  writer,  "  is  much 
more  uniform  in  temperature  than  any  I  have  j'ct  seen  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  latter  i)art  of  February,  18G4,  the  ther- 
mometer rose  to  75^  Fahr.,  and  has  ranged  from  GO""  to  90""  for 
quite  a  number  of  weeks  ;  in  fact  I  have  not  seen  it  range  as 
low  as  40°  at  any  time  within  the  past  year  in  the  middle  of  the 
day,  and  on  two  occasions  only  have  I  seen  it  as  low  as  28^^ 
(very  early  in  the  morning),  and  it  always  moderates  to  about 
50^  or  60'  in  the  middle  of  the  day  in  the  coldest  weather.  Ice 
seldom  forms  at  all,  and  never  lasts  till  noon.  In  October, 
18G3,  the  range  was  from  70^  to  90"  ;  November,  GO^  to  80°  ; 
December,  56^  to  66^ ;  January,  18G4,  from  60"  to  70°.    The 


THE   SEASONS    IN  CALIFORNIA. 


223 


fii'st  week  iii  Januaiy,  -when  it  was  so  cold  in  the  Northwestern 

States,  50°  Fahr.  was  the  coldest  in  the  middle  of  the  day.     I 

have  not  seen  a  flake  of  snow  for  a  year  except  a  little  on  the 

mountains  of  the  coast  ran'ijc,  which  here  rise  from  3,000  to 

4,000  feet :  there  never  falls  any  in  the  valley.      Eoses  and 

honeysuckles  bloom  all  the  year  round  in  the  open  air.     Rain 

seldom  falls  between  April  and  November,  thus  rendering  ini- 

gation   necessary  through  this  otherwise   favored   section  of 

country. 

The  SeaiBOiis  in  California. 

{CopUd  fi-um  (III  Otficiiil-  Document.) 

"  There  are  but  two  seasons  on  the  Pacific  coast,  usually  de- 
nominated the  dr//  and  raiin/  seasons  ;  the  former  correspond- 
ing to  the  Atlantic  summer,  the  latter  to  the  winter  ;  but  much 
error  exists  in  regard  to  them,  esiiecially  as  to  the  amount  of 
rain  falling  during  the  rauiy  season.  The  following  totals  of 
rain  that  fell  at  San  Francisco  during  each  wet  season,  from 
1851  to  1857,  will  show  that  the  yearly  amount  is  not  great. 

During  the  wet  season  of  1851-52,  there  fell  18.0  inches. 

1852-53,  "  33.2 
1853-54,  "  23.0 
1851-55,  "  24.6 
1855-5(3,  "  21.3 
1850-57,-^       "        18.7 

The  following  table  will  show  how  these  amounts  were  dis- 
tributed each  month  from  1851  to  1857. 


« 
tt 


(( 

(. 
<( 


MEAN   MONTHLY  FALL  OF  liAIN. 


January,    . 

.     4.52] 

inches. 

Julv, 

.00  inches 

February,  . 

.    3.37 

(( 

August 

.       .00      " 

March, 

.     3.32 

(( 

September 

.       .18      " 

April, 

.     3.07 

t( 

October,     . 

.      .45      " 

May, 

.      .73 

(( 

November, 

.    2.08      " 

June, 

.      .00 

« 

December, 

.    4.45      " 

Giving  an  yearly  average  of  .        .        .         .  22.17      " 

These  figures  show  clearly  what  months  constitute  each  of 
these  two  characteristic  seasons. 

"  During  the  seasons  we  passed  about  San  Francisco,  wr, 
never  heard  thunder  or  saw  lightning  ;  and  never  but  once  s?i\v 
snow  fall,  and  then  only  at  an  elevation  of  400  feet ;  the  hno 
being  distinctly  marked,  and  the  elevation  being  well  deter- 
mined l)y  the  knowledge  of  the  height  of  the  hills." 

The  following  statement  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  tem- 

*  To  end  ot  March. 


ifr 


221 


INI'LUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


peraturc  of  tlio  sea-board.  TLe  interior  is  mucli  warmer,  but, 
on  account  of  tlio  dr^Tiess  of  the  atmosphere,  the  e£fect  is  not  so 
enervating  to  the  system  as  a  lower  temperature  on  the  Atlantic. 

MEAN  TEMrERATURE  AT  SUNRISE   AND  NOON,   FOR  SIX  YEARS, 
From  1851  to  1850,  computed  from  the  California  State  Register  for  1857. 


MoxTiia. 

SUNRTBE. 

Nook. 

Months, 

Sunrise. 

Noon. 

"  Fahr. 

'  Falir. 

°  Falir. 

"  Fahr. 

January, 

.    44.0 

57.7 

July, 

.    52.6 

67.8 

February, 

.    4G.0 

G0.5 

Aiifj^st,  . 

.    53.7 

68.2 

March,    . 

.    47.(5 

63.1 

September, 

.    54.0 

69.9 

April, 

.    49.3 

(55.0 

October, 

.    52.7 

08.4 

May,       . 

.    49.9 

04.5 

November, 

.    49.8 

01.9 

June, 

.    51.4 

68.1 

December, 

.    45.2 

55.7 

49.7 


54.3 


Mean  average, 

The  lowest  temperature  experienced  in  San  Francisco  in  the 
above  six  years  was  25^  Fahr.,  in  January,  1854.  In  1852,  '53, 
'50,  the  temperature  Avas  always  above  fi-eeziug,  falhng  no 
lower  than  4()^  in  1853.  The  highest  temperature  was  98^,  in 
September,  1852,  and  that  may  be  considered  remarkably  high ; 
90"  hanng  been  reached  but  once  in  any  other  year. 

In  a  late  letter  from  San  Francisco,  CaL,  the  writer  saj's  : 

"  Wo  pay  very  close  attention  here  to  climatic  changes  in 
the  winter,  because  our  wealth  depends  upon  them.  "We  begin 
our  conversations,  not  by  remarking  upon  the  weather,  but 
upon  the  diniale — a  wider  subject,  and  requiring  a  traveled 
person  to  a})preciate  it.  As  wo  have  a  dozen  climates  in  Cah- 
fomia,  we  can  all  talk  about  them.  While  Napa  is  wet  as  a 
swamp,  Santa  Clara  is  dry  as  timber ;  and  while  the  Sr.cra- 
mentans  are  bhsteriug  with  heat,  wo  in  this  city  shiver  with 
our  overcoats  buttoned  up  to  our  chins.  March  has  brought 
rough  winds  vrith  him,  and  during  tiiis  week  the  meekness  of 
our  winter's  sun  has  been  succeeded  by  winds  as  cold  and  harsh 
as  those  of  July  and  August. 

"  The  prospect  for  fruit  is  excellent  just  now,  but  the  crop 
^dll  be  in  great  danger  for  three  weeks  to  come.  Two  men  in 
Napa  County,  each  having  about  100  acres  of  orchard,  have 
eacn  $50,000  at  least  depending  on  the  v>'eather  between  this 
and  the  20th  of  April.  If  there  be  ro  severe  frosts,  the  pro- 
duce of  their  two  orchards  will  sell  for  at  least  $100,000 ;  if  tho 
frosts  be  severe,  the  produce  will  bo  worth  little  or  nothing. 
They  keep  men  on  the  watch  every  night,  and  if  there  is 
danger  of  frost,  numerous  fires  are  built  between  the  rows 
throughout  the  orchard.  In  other  counties  near  tho  buy 
equally  largo  interests  are  endangered  by  Jack  Frost." 


I 


METEOROLOGICAL  TABLE   FOR  SACRAMENTO  CITY. 


225 


The  Sierra  Nevada  of  California  formn  part  of  the  gi'eat 
mountain  chain,  which,  under  different  names,  at  unequal 
heights,  but  in  a  uniform  direction,  spreads  from  the  Sierra  de 
San  Bernardino  to  llussian  America,  beinp;  second  only  to  the 
Eocky  Mountain  Bango,  affording  no  other  apertures  than 
those  through  which  the  Columbia  and  the  Frazer  flow  into  the 
Pacific.  Tliis  range  is  remai'kable  for  its  extent,  its  parallelism 
with  the  sea-shore,  its  volcanic  peaks,  and  the  elevation  of  its 
isolated  mountains,  some  of  which  rise  above  the  highest  sum- 
mit of  the  Eocky  Mountains.  The  greatest  part  of  these  peaks, 
like  pyramids,  are  placed  on  an  immense  plateau,  overgrown 
with  magnificent  forests,  and  stretching  as  far  as  the  frozen 
regions  of  eternal  snow,  and  rising  from  12,000  to  17,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Sierra  Nevada  exercises  a 
visible  influence  on  the  climate  and  productions  of  Northern 
California,  Distant  150  miles  from  the  coast,  this  gigantic 
wall  receives  the  hot  winds,  loaded  with  vapors,  that  blow  from 
the  ocean  and  fall  in  rain  and  snow  on  the  western  part  of  the 
range,  leaving  the  opposite  declivity  exposed  to  drought  and 
cold  blasts.  Consequently,  you  may  find  at  the  same  season, 
in  the  same  latitude,  and  at  the  same  height,  mildness  of  cli- 
mate, fertilitj',  and  in  fact  summer,  reigning  on  one  side,  whilst 
sterility,  cold  atmosphere  and  frost  exist  with  more  or  less 
intensity  on  the  opposite  slope  of  these  mountains,  whose  sub- 
lime beauty  is  perhaps  unequalled  throughout  the  world.  Here, 
too,  are  found,  on  the  western  slope,  the  most  extensive  gold 
Jidd  of  any  known  region. 


Meteorological  Table  for  Sacramento  City,  Cal. 

N.  Lat.  38°  34',  W.  Long.  131*  27'.    Altitude,  40  feet 

By  Thomas  M.  Logan,  M.D. 


1859-GO. 

Mnxinwim. 

Minimiim. 

Mean.  Temp. 

March,     . 

.    64" 

Fahr. 

39^ 

Fahr. 

53.00°  Fall 

April, 

.    76 

40 

57.11      " 

May, 

.    80 

53 

63.00      " 

June, 

.    96 

61 

74.85      " 

July, 

.     87 

60 

69.07      " 

August,    . 

,     85 

58 

67.16      " 

September, 

.    82 

56 

65.89      " 

October,  . 

.    83 

49 

63.28      " 

November, 

.     68 

42 

54.05      *' 

December, 

.     53 

34 

43.52      " 

January, 

.     56 

37 

46.20      " 

Fobrnary, 

.     65 

37 

49.83      " 

Mean  annual  temperature,  58.92°  Fahr. 


i 


226 


INFLUENCE   OF  CLIMATE. 


During  the  above  period  18.74  inches  of  rain  fell,  which  was 
a  Httle  less  than  the  usual  average.  171  clays  were  clear ;  195 
days  cloudy,  and  61  days  rainy. 

Table  of  Raius  at  Sacrameuto,  Cal. 
Showing  the  (luuntity,  in  Inches,  of  each  month  during  nine  years. 


Months. 

•51-2 

T)2-3 

'53^ 

'54-5 

'55-0 

•56-7 

'57-8 

'58-9 

'59-60 

Mean 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Incli.  i  Inch. 

Incli. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

July, 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.00 

0.01 

0.00 

0.03 

0.00 

Aug., 

0.02 

0.00 

0.00 

Sl)ri. 

0.00 

0.00 

Spri. 

Spri. 

0.00 

0.00 

Sept., 

1.00 

0.00 

0.00 

S])ri. 

Sjiri. 

S]Hi 

0.00 

Spri. 

0.02 

0.11 

Oct., 

0.18 

0.00 

0.00 

1.01 

0.00 

0.19 

0.65 

3.01 

0.00 

0..59 

Nov., 

2.14 

G.OO 

1.50 

0.65 

0.75 

0.65 

2.40 

0.14 

6.48 

2.08 

Dec, 

7.07 

13=41 

1.54 

1.15 

2.00 

2.39 

2.63 

4.33 

1.83 

4.44 

Jan., 

0.58 

3.00 

3.25 

2.67 

4.91 

1.37 

2.44 

0.96 

2.31 

2.42 

Feb., 

0.12 

2.00   8.50 

3.46 

0.69 

4.80 

2.46 

3.90 

0.93 

2.52 

March, 

G.40 

7.00   3.25 

4.20 

1.40 

0.67 

2.87 

1.63 

5.11 

4.03 

April, 
May, 

0.19 

3.50   1.50 

4.32 

2.13 

Spri. 

1.21 

0.98 

2.87 

2.82 

0.30 

1.45   0.21 

1.15 

1.84 

Spri. 

0.20 

1.03 

2.49 

0.87 

June, 

0.00 

0.00  0.31 

0.01 

0.03 

0.35 

0.09 

0.00 

Spri. 

0.07 

Totals, 

18.00  'MM  20.00  18.02 

1 

13.77 

10.4415.00 

16.02  22.09 

1 

20.00 

Average  fall  of  rain  for  10  years,  19  inches. 

Note. — The  most  importixnt  feature  of  the  above  Meteorological  observations, 
in  a  practical  point  of  view,  lies  in  the  periodical  r.iin  of  California,  by  which 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  agriculturalist  cannot  depend  with  any  certainty  upon 
the  raius  alone,  but  must  be  prepared  to  supply  their  deficiency,  whenever  it 
occurs,  by  irrigation. 

Oregon,  and  Washington  Territory. 

"  Oregon  boasts  of  a  line  climate,  not  more  favorable  to  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants  than  to  the  growth  of  agricultural 
products.  The  range  of  the  thermometer  in  the  valley  of  the 
Willamette,  is  from  30^  to  96^  up  to  the  45th  parallel,  and 
above  this  it  is  not  often  much  colder.  The  winter  is  short, 
commencing  the  last  of  December  and  continuing  until  Feb- 
ruary. During  this  time,  south  of  the  above  parallel,  snow  falls 
but  rarely,  never  to  the  depth  of  more  than  three  or  four 
inches,  and  soon  disappears.  Kains  are  quite  frequent,  espe- 
cially from  November  till  March,  tliough  not  often  heavy. 

"  It  is  well  known  that  isothermal  hues,  or  hues  of  equal  tem- 
perature, traverse  the  earth  with  varied  eccentricity ;  and  that 
it  is  much  warmer  on  the  Pacific  coast  than  in  the  same  latitude 
■on  the  Atlantic.  Hence  fruit  trees  blossom  early  in  April  at 
Nisqually  (about  north  latitude  47 "j,  and  green  peas  and  straw- 


OREGON,   AND  WASHINGTON  TERRITORY. 


227 


0.00 
0.00 
0.11 
0.59 
2.08 
4.44 
2.42 
2.52 
4.03 
2.82 
0.87 
0.07 


berries  are  abundant  in  May  ;  wliile  south  of  tlio  Oohimbia 
River  grass  gi'ows  all  the  -iviuter  long,  and  tlio  cattle  are  not 
housed,  and  only  confined  in  jiens  at  night  to  protect  them  from 
wolves  and  other  Avild  animals. 

"  Fever  and  ague,  occasioned  l)y  the  decomposition  of  the 
vegetable  matter  turned  up  by  the  plow  on  the  prairies,  and 
some  pulmonary  complaints,  arc  the  ])rincipal  diseases  to  which 
the  inhabitants  are  subject.  The  lirst  is  quite  fatal  to  the 
Indians,  solely  on  the  account  of  bad  treatment,  however  ;  and 
small-pox  has  made  dreadful  ravages  among  them. 

"  Most  conspicuous  among  the  productions  of  Oregon,  and 
"Washington  Territory,  are  the  enormous  timber  trees.  These 
arc  truly  giants.  Near  Astoria,  in  the  primeval  forest,  there  arc 
fir  trees  over  forty  feet  in  circumference,  three  hundred  feet 
long,  and  rising  to  the  height  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
without  giving  off  a  single  branch.  Among  the  evergreens  are 
the  Douglass  pine,  fir,  spruce,  arbutus,  cedar,  yew,  and  arbor 
vito}.  The  principal  deciduous  trees  are  red  and  white  oaks, 
hard  and  soft  maples,  the  alder,  poplar,  elm  and  cherry.  The 
ash,  here  and  there,  scatters  its  winged  seeds  upon  the  wind ; 
and  in  the  forests  of  Southern  Oregon,  the  long  string  of  balls 
of  the  sycamore,  and  the  feathery  scones  of  the  cotton-wood, 
wave  above  a  dense  undergrowth  of  willows,  hazels,  and  wild 
roses,  amid  which  occasionally  glisten  the  silvery  trunks  of  the 
birches,  '  the  ladies  of  the  wood.'  South  of  the  Columbia  liiver, 
however,  there  is,  comparatively  speaking,  but  Kttle  forest  land. 
But  in  Washington  Territory,  north  of  the  4Gth  parallel,  there 
is  an  abundance  of  timber  for  home  consiamption,  as  well  as  for 
exportation ;  and  since  the  discovery  of  the  gold  mines  of 
California  and  the  rapid  population  of  that  State,  the  value  of 
the  timber  has  enhanced  in  a  wonderful  degi'ee. 

"All  kinds  of  grass — timothy,  clover  and  blue  grass — grow 
with  the  greatest  luxui'ianco  in  the  valleys  of  the  Columbia,  Wil- 
lamette and  Umpqua,  and  other  streams  in  the  eastern  section. 
Indeed,  this  country  seems  to  be  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  their 
growth,  and  it  can  scarcely  be  excelled  in  the  Union  for  good 
pasturage.  There  are  two  crops  of  rich,  juicy  grass  produced 
on  the  river  prairies — one  in  the  Spring,  and  the  other  after  the 
overflow  subsides,  in  July  and  August.  Yet  there  is  very  little 
hay  made,  except  for  exportation  :  the  scythe  and  the  rake,  and 
the  toil  and  sweat  of  the  mower,  are  rendered  almost  unneces- 
sary by  the  kindness  of  nature.  The  growth  of  the  grass  is  so 
rapid  in  the  early  Summer  that  the  subsequent  heats  convert  it 
readily,  into  hay,  where  it  stands  without  the  loss  of  any  of  its 
juices.  Upon  the  second  crop  the  stock  feed  during  the  Fall 
and  Winter. 


■■'M  5?  n 


h 


228 


rNFr.UENC!E  OF  CLIMATE. 


"  Tho  soil  of  tho  prairies  and  interval  lands  (;ontains  an 
al)undan(!0  of  hUox,  and  Avhoro  it  irt  suilit'ientlj  dry  produces 
fino  crops  of  wheat — the  yield  varying  from  thirty  to  fifty 
busliels  ])v.v  iu've,  often  of  more  tlian  sixty  ])ounds  wei^dit. 
There  is  no  sucli  tiling  as  a  complete  failure  of  the  wheat  cro)) ; 
l)ut,  as  the  waters  of  the  rivers  arc  quit(!  cold,  and  possess  little 
or  no  fertilizing;  ])roperties,  it  is  liaMe  to  be  injured  Ijy  tli(» 
inundations  in  all  low  exposures.  Indian  com  and  oats  do 
not  succeed  very  -well,  the  foruKM-  sulferinf;  mu(rh  during  the 
cold  nij^hts,  and  the  latter  producing  small  heads  in  com])aris()n 
with  tho  stalk.  For  peas,  beans,  ])otat(^rs,  cab])a<:;e8,  and  most 
f^ai'dcn  vegetables,  the  soil  is  sui)ei-ior,  producing  abundantly 
and  of  an  enormous  siz(>. 

"  Oregon  and  Washington  TeiTitory  are  not  deficient  in 
fruits.  Apples,  pears,  plums,  goosol)en'ies  and  currants,  have 
a  thrifty  growth,  and  yi<>!d  pl(>ntifully  ;  and  the  indigenous 
fruits,  including  strawl)crries,  l)lackberri(.'S,  serviceberries,  cran- 
bei-ries,  crab  apples,  wild  chcmes,  wild  p(\as  and  thorn  api)les, 
ar(!  very  prolific. 

"  The  streams  flowing  into  tho  Pacific  produce  excellent  fish, 
and  gi'eat  (luantities  of  salmon  are  annually  taken  in  the  rivtn-s 
discharging  their  waters  into  Pug(it's  Sound.  Mosi.  all  the 
birds  commonly  found  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  in  about  the  same 
latitiide  are  found  hero  ;  and  on  the  ocean  shores  there  are  an 
abundance  of  gulls,  frigate-birds,  villula,  and  other  aquatic 
fowl."—  Wllkci'  ExpeAition. 

Scenery  and  Climate  of  Washington  Territory. 

"  The  natural  features  of  AVashington  Territory  are  strikingly 
difTerent  throughout  from  those  of  a  corresponding  ])ortion  of 
the  Atlantic  coast,  owing  both  to  its  mountainous  character 
and  peculiar  products.  To  a  traveller  approaching  tho  coast 
1)}'  sea,  the  whole  country'  appears  mountainous  cad  densely 
clothed  with  dark  green  forests  from  the  water  Ibvel  to  the 
limits  of  perpeti,  A  snow.  Far  above  this  tower,  in  indescriba- 
ble majesty  and  beauty,  the  brilliant  snow-clad  peaks  of  the 
(Cascade  llange,  in  strong  relief  against  the  dtu^p  blue  sky,  and 
Hocmingly  dose  to  the  sea,  although  Mt.  St.  Helens,  the  nearest, 
is  one  hiindred  miles  inland.  At  sunset  the  softening  mist, 
which  often  hangs  over  them,  becomes  tinted  Avith  the  most 
delicate  hues,  until  in  the  moonhght  they  become  like  monu- 
ments of  shining  silver. 

*•  On  nearing  land,  this  noble  scenery  is  found  to  be  accom- 
panied l)y  a  proportionately  gigantic  vegetation,  and,  indeed, 
everything  seems  i)lanued  on  a  gigantic  scale  of  twice  tho  di- 
mensions to  which  wo  have  been  accustomed.     The  Columbia, 


SCENERY  AND   CIJMATE  OF  WAHIIINGTON   TERRITORY. 


229 


nncquallod  in  f^'nmdour  oven  hy  tlio  '  Futlicr  of  "Wnter.s,'  is  Lor- 
dercd  l)y  lofty  clifls  iind  inotintuius,  clothed  from  l)aso  to  Hum- 
rnit  with  perpetual  v<'rdure,  and  sup])ortiu"  on  alnioHt  v.\Qry 
foot  of  snrfaeo  trees  of  aKtonishin^'  niaj^'uitude.  At  every  l)end 
constantly  varying?  scenes  of  th(!  wildest  hcanty  hurst  u])on  tho 
view,  wlmei  tho  calm  silence  is  often  unhroken,  save  by  the 
screaming  of  the  panther  or  the  shrill  cry  of  the  eagle  souring 
far  overhead. 

"  Tho  counti-y  bordering  on  tho  lower  Colund)ia  has  been 
celebrated  ev<>r  since  its  discoveiT  for  the  gigantic  growth  of 
its  forests.  Even  s])ecies  so  nearly  resembling  those  of  tho 
Atlantic  States  as  to  be  generally  considered  identical,  attain  a 
much  greater  size.  The  milder  climate  and  alnindant  moisture, 
causing  a  longer  'growing  season,  ma}'  be  considered,  ])erhap8, 
as  one  cause  of  tliis  increase.  It  seems  certainly  to  have  an 
influence  iipon  many  smaller  plants,  and  most  sti'ikingly  so  on 
eultivatcid  vegetables,  whose  seeds  w(!  knew  to  have  been 
brouglit  from  the  East.  The  great  height  to  which  trees  grow 
may  also  be  due  to  the  rarity  of  lightning,  as  it  is  Avell  known 
that  thunder-storms,  though  common  on  the  mountains,  aro 
very  rar<»  in  the  valleys. 

"  Entering  by  the  Straits  of  Fuca,  the  scenery  is  quite  dif- 
ferent, but  no  less  interesting.  The  calm  blue;  waters  of  tho 
sound  lie  placid  as  a  lake  in  the  basin  formed  by  their  steep 
shores  with  an  ever-varying  outline  of  points  and  bays,  and 
dotted  with  islands  of  every  form  and  size.  Prairies  are  often 
visil)le  to  tho  water's  edge,  interspersed  Avith  evergreen  forests, 
and  extending  as  an  elevated  plat(;iiu  to  the  l)ase  of  tho  rugged 
and  snowy  mountains  that  ri:<e  like  v.alls  on  the  east  and  west. 

"  With  all  this  magnilicence  there  is  not  wanting  scenery  of 
a  milder  and  moie  home-like  aspect.  The  smooth  prairies, 
dotted  with  groves  of  oaks,  whicli  in  the  distance  look  liko 
orchards,  seem  so  much  like  old  farms  that  it  is  hard  to  resist 
the  illusion  that  we  are  in  a  land  cultivated  for  hundreds  of 
years,  and  adorned  by  the  highest  art,  though  the  luxuriant 
and  brilliant  vegetation  far  excels  any  natural  growth  in  tho 
East.  Nothing  seems  wanting  but  the  presence  of  civilized 
man,  though  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  ho  oftener  mars 
than  improves  tho  lovely  face  of  nature. 

•'  The  soa-beach,  too,  lias  peculiar  attractions  for  one  accus- 
tomed to  live  in  its  vicinity.  Its  broad  hard  sand  forms  an  ex- 
cellent road,  smooth  and  solid  as  the  floor,  on  which  are  often 
to  be  f(mnd  objects  of  interest  and  value,  free  gifts  from  tho 
domains  of  Neptune.  The  c<mstant  roar  of  the  surf  forms  a 
pleasant  relief  to  tho  .silence  of  tho  surroiuiding  forests,  and  in 
solemn  tones  unceasingly  it  speaks  of  that  Power  who  created 


U 


I  !i 


p    h  i 


230 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


all  these  things,  '  whoso  i)ath  is  iu  the  groat  waters,  and  whose 
footsteps  are  not  known.'  " — Stevnns  Pacific  Hail  Road  Ikporl. 

The  immense  section  of  couuiry  lying  east  of  the  Cascado 
Bango  of  mountains,  extending  to  tiio  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
between  46^'  and  49^  north  latitude,  being  the  upper  valley 
of  the  Columbia  River,  is  peculiar  as  a  dry,  healthy  climate, 
being  destitute  of  forest  trees  except  on  the  mountains,  which 
are  crowned  with  pines  of  a  large  si/e.  This  Avhole  country  is 
made  up  of  hills  and  valleys  covered  with  rich  grasses,  afford- 
ing an  extensive  range  for  countless  Hocks  and  herds. 

During  the  spring  mouths  the  country  presents  a  beautiful 
green  aspect,  variegated  by  flowers,  and  watered  by  occasional 
showers.  The  summers  are  very  dry  and  cloudless,  the  tem- 
perature rising  high  during  the  day-time,  followed  by  cool 
niglits.  The  cultivation  is  most  successful  where  irrigation  is 
applied,  while  the  grasses  afford  at  all  times  sufficient  noiirish- 
ment  for  stock  of  every  kind.  The  autumn  months  are  dry  and 
pleasant,  while  the  winter  months  are  frosty  and  cold  ;  snow 
falling  occasionally  in  the  valleys,  but  more  frequently  in  the 
mountains. 

METEOROLOOICAL  TABLE, 
Relating  to  Washington  Territory. 


Stations. 


Fort  Walla- WaUa, 

Olympia, 

Fort  Steilacoom, 

Fort  Bellingham, 

Camp  Scmiahmoo, 


Lat. 


Ijong. 


Mean  Temperature — Fahr. 


Si)r'g. !  Sum.  lAut'n.iWint. 

40^30' 118^^20' 52^07  77.14'53;9G3i;27 
47°0O'122°30'i  —  I   _  i   _  I   _ 
47^0'  122°25'|46.54  G2.52  48.84  3G.28 
48°45' 122-30'|46.59  62.00'   —  [   — 
49^00'  122='45''49.00'G4.91  50.00    — 


Year. 

53^60 
51.00 
49.29 

49.00 


"  The  climate  of  this  country,"  says  a  medical  writer,  "  as 
regards  temperature,  possesses  a  medium  between  hyperborean 
cold  and  intertropical  heat.  The  seasons  may  bo  said  to  be 
divided  into  the  rainy  and  dry.  From  the  middle  of  October 
mitil  the  first  of  April  is  the  rainy  season.  During  this  time 
the  sky  is  almost  constantly  obscured  by  clouds,  and  rain 
greater  part  of  the  time  falling.  During  April  and  May  there 
are  frequent  showers,  after  which  there  are  occasional  showers  ; 
but  rain  sufficient  to  wet  the  ground  very  seldom  falls  ;  this, 
however,  appUes  more  particularly  to  the  coast  region,  west  of 
the  Cascade  Mountain'  ,  To  show  the  average  tempcratui'e 
during  the  year,  and  the  general  characteristics  of  cUmatc,  we 
have  made  the  following  extracts  from  the  Meteorological 
Register  kept  at  Fort  Stcilacoom,  north  latitude  47'^10',  during 
the  year  1851. 


WASHINGTON  TEimiTORY. 


231 


"  December  was  the  coldest  montli.  The  mcfiu  teniporaturo 
as  follows:  Sunrise,  'S7A\7  ;  U  A.M.,  41.55;  3  P.M.,  44.01); 
9  P.M.,  41.29.  The  maxinnim  was  Vi^^  at  3  P.M.  on  the  7tb, 
and  the  minimum  22-'  at  yuuriso  on  (ho  22d. 

"  August  was  the  warmest  month.  The  mean  temperature 
as  follows:  Sunrise,  55.80;  9  A.M.,  00.58;  3  P.M.,  77.70; 
9  P.M.,  04.22.  The  maximum  was  92  at  3  P.M.  on  the  20th, 
and  the  minimum  40^  at  sunrise  on  tlie  31st. 

"  The  maximum  tein])eraturo  during  the  year  Avas  92"^  at 
.3  P.M.  on  the  18th  of  July,  and  the  minimiim  22"'  at  sunrise  (m 
the  22d  of  December,  l)uring  the  year  40  inches  of  rain  fell. 
The  uuiximum  quantity  in  one  mouth  was  15.30,  in  January  ; 
and  the  minimum,  0.30  inch  in  July.  The  last  frost  in  the 
spring  was  on  the  8th  Ai)ril,  and  the  first  killing  frost  of  autumn 
on  the  11th  October.  Snow  falls  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
every  winter,  but  seldom  remains  on  the  ground  over  two  or 
three  days.  It  has  fallen  once  during  the  last  three  years  to 
the  depth  of  twelve  inches,  and  remained  on  the  ground  four 
or  live  days.  Ice  seldom  forms  over  half  an  inch  thick.  The 
prevailing  winds  during  the  rainy  season  are  southerly  ;  and 
during  the  dry,  northerly.  Southerly  winds  are  always  indica- 
tive of  rainy  weather,  and  northerly  of  dry. 

"  The  country  generally  being  high  and  dry,  the  lakes,  all  of 
jmre  fresh  water,  no  marshes  or  alluvial  bottoms  being  in  the 
vicinity,  diseases  of  a  malarious  origin  are  almost  entirely  im- 
known.  Catarrhs,  rheumatism,  and  diseases  incident  to  ex- 
posure to  cold,  combined  with  moisture,  are  quite  common 
during  the  rainy  season." 


Pacific  Coast — Washington  Teiiitory. 
Extract  from  a  letter,  dated  Port  Townscnd,  Washington  Tcr.,  July  8,  18G2. 

"  As  the  long,  dry,  and  hot  summer  of  California  began  to 
affect  my  health,  I  removed  early  in  1859  to  this  place,  where 
I  shall  probal)ly  remain,  for  the  following  reasons  : 

"  1.  There  is  no  dry  season  here.  There  are  rains  through 
the  year,  little  or  no  snow  in  winter,  and  west  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains,  precisely  the  climate  of  Old  England,  save  only 
that  I  have  not  discovered  the  same  tendency  to  affect  the  hmgs. 

"  2.  This  country  is  destined  to  become  the  most  interesting 
portion  of  our  glorious  Union,  and  soon  to  take  position  as  the 
great  Northwest  State. 

"  3.  No  country  on  earth  equals  this  in  majestic  forests  of 
tl\*ckly  studded  trees,  rising  from  eighty  to  three  hundj'cd  feet 
in  .  eight,  of  the  very  best  (pudity  for  spars  and  ship  timber 
generally,  easy  of  access,  and  now  beginning  to  supply  the  ships 


i 

M 


232 


INTI.UENCE  OP  CIJMATE. 


of  every  known  })art  of  llu;  world,  wliich  from  time  to  time  pass 
in  front  vi(!W  of  my  onicc  Fir,  ccdHr,  j)in(',  mii,j)l(',  liiickmatack 
(liard  as  iron  and  very  loftyj.  Tlu;  dt-nHity  of  tho  forcHtw  have 
loft  comjwirativcly  littht  sco^)o  for  a^riculturo  ;  yet  thonj  is  a 
{considerable!  amount  of  ])rairi(',  yicldin;^'  the,  larfrcut  cvopH  of 
Mh(!at,  oats,  potatoes,  ])iimi»kins,  harley,  apples,  ]  ,  plnms, 

rasp'KMTJes,  gooseherries,  lilackherries,  strawlierri  currants, 
{^'rowing  luxTiiiantly  in  tln'ir  natural  homes  tlirouf^liont  tlio  Tcr- 
ntoty.  P<!aeli(!S  (lo  not  ripen,  nor  tomatoes,  nor  Jndian  corn, 
nor  }^ra]H!S  (tho  just  boast  of  Californiii),  nor  melons,  save  in  a 
f(!W  Holoctcd  spots.  Th(!  (grains  best  suited  to  this  country  (west 
of  the  (!ascad(!s»  arc;  red-top,  orchard,  timothy,  and  whatever 
oIho  is  suited  to  Old  J*]ngland. 

"4.  The  world  does  not  ])resent  any  com])!i.rison  with  tho 
archijudaf^o  of  islands  appurtenant  to  tlu^  continent,  and  lyinj^ 
iinnuidiatcily  south  of  tin;  'l!Hh  parallel  and  east  of  the  Island  of 
Vancouv(!r.  San  Juan  has  luxuriant  ])rairies,  with  park-like 
appearanc  0,  several  ihu)  harbors,  and  for  sheej)  cannot  be  ex- 
eell<;d.  Tiuire  is  not  a  wolf  or  "  bete  feroc(i  "  (m  the  island. 
JjO[)ez  has  less  prairie,  any  (|uantity  of  stalwart  wolves,  deer, 
bears,  &c.  Orcas  and  others  mueli  the  same  as  pex,  with 
here  and  there  a  hunter  oeeu})i(!d  in  su|ij)lyinf  •  IJritish 

neighbors  of  Victoria,  which  ])lace,  beinj^  by  the  ^        /  of  the 
British  OovernnKiiit  a  sea|)o)t,  attracts  from  up  a  large  i      ^ 
that  otherwise  .vould  centcjr  at  Port  Townsend. 

"  These  islands  nmst,  within  a  f(!W  years,  beconjo  densely 
settled,  and  present  all  th(!  charms  of  rich  cultivation.  They 
have  large  harbors,  around  which  rove  in  their  season  the  sal- 
mon, halibut,  rock,  cod,  and  myriads  of  smaller  lish  of  delicious 
taste.  The  dog-lish  and  shark  are  also  taken  in  gr(!at  quantity 
for  oil  ;  the  oil  of  the  former  medicinally  surpass(!S  the  famed 
'cod-liver  oil,'  when  pr(!pared»by  steam  or  water-heated  cylin- 
ders ])la(!ed  within  the  larger.  For  whaling  de])ots  the  harbors 
of  Puget  Sound  are  all  that  ])ossibly  could  be  desired.     For 

must  become  the 


national  navy  yards,  diy  docks,  &(;.,  they 
great  United  States  rendezvous  of  tho  Pacil 


fie. 


Idaho  Territory. 

The  Governor  of  Idaho  gives  the  following  in  his  recent 
message  : 

"  The  immense  structural  wealth  embodied  within  our  con- 
fines, so  nicely  balanccid,  of  mineral,  farming  and  grazing 
interest.^,  with  mountain  forests  and  tiiid)er  hind  and  water 
power  of  every  descrii)tion,  eniinently  adapt  us  for  a  Hclf-sup- 
porting  comnumity.  The  fertile  bottom  lands  of  the  St.  Jo- 
seph, Cccnv  D'Aleue,  Spokane,  La-Toh,  Paloase,  Lapwaii,  Ko(js- 


ItOOKY   MOUNTAINS — CLIMATT. 


233 


;0S- 


koos-kia,  Nas-so,  Payotto,  WiHivr,  BoIho,  Malado,  and  tboir 
trihntarioH,  would  alono  HiiHtain,  properly  cultivated,  a  popula- 
tion larf^c^r  than  TiioHt  of  tho  Atfimtic  States;  while  rang* 'H  of 
nutriti'iouH  "  hundi  (^'rass,"  Huitahlc;  for  herds,  cov«!r  niillioiiH  of 
acres.  Add  to  tliis  placei-  di<,'f4iii<^s,  of  gnsatei'  or  Ichh  vichnesH, 
ext(!ndin<^  for  hundreds  of  Sfjuans  miles,  with  well-delined  gold 
iind  silvcu'-hearing  (piart/  ledges,  uniividled  by  those  of  Mexico 
(u-  J*eru  ;  a  glorious  cliuuitc!,  with  Syrian  sunjiuers  and  Italian 
vvintcirs,  bespeak  tho  p((rnianenco  of  our  untold  resources,  and 
i\w,  p)f)sperity  tliat  surely  and  positively  awaits  tlnnr  develoj)- 
nient." 

Rocky  MountaiuB — Climate,  Snoxv,  etc. 

(Cojiii'd from  Ca|it.  Mi'M.an's  ftt'iiort.) 

"  There  has  been  no  one  subject  so  little  understood  or  ho 
much  niisnipresented  as  th(!  (diuiato  of  the  northern  valleys  of 
the  Itocky  Moinitaiiis  and  the  ))iains  extenduig  to  tluiir  either 
base.  I  am  frank  to  admit  tliat  the  section  of  our  i-oad  from 
tho  C(jeur  d'Ah'-ne  Mission  to  tho  Jiitter  Hoot  ferry  does  inter- 
pose the  obstru(;tion  of  snow  to  sucli  an  extcint  that  I  despair 
of  seeing  it  trav(;lled  in  winter,  unless  a  daily  mail  coacli  is 
l)laced  upon  the  line,  when  tho  snow  l)eing  b(;aten  down  twico 
a  day,  would,  I  thiidc,  keep  the  line  constantly  open.  13ut  all 
the  remaining  sections  are  mild,  with  so  little  snow  that  travel- 
ling with  lun'ses  can  bcs  kcipt  up  all  winter.  And  although  tho 
clim.'ite  in  the  r(!gi(jn  first  referred  to  is  severe,  by  going  north 
to  the  Clark's  Fork,  we  at  once  enter  a  milder  section,  and  one 
that  ofl'cu's  every  udv;intage  to  travel.  Tho  temperature  of 
AValla-Walla,  in  40 ',  is  similar  to  that  of  Washington  (^ity,  in 
;j8^  N.  latitude  ;  that  of  tho  Clark's  Fork,  in  48',  to  that  of  St. 
Joseph's,  Missouri,  in  latitud(!  41 '  ;  that  of  tho  liitter  Hoot  val- 
l(!y,  in  4(j^,  is  similar  to  that  of«Philadel|)hia,  in  latitude  40-", 
with  al)Out  the  same  amount  of  sn(jw,  and  with  the  exception  of 
a  f(;w  days  of  intense  cold,  about  the  same  average  tempera- 
lure.  This  condition  of  facts  is  not  accidental,  but  arises  from 
tho  truths  of  metecjrolggical  laws  that  are  as  unvarying  as  they 
are  wonderful  and  useful.  As  early  as  tho  winter  of  l8o3,  whi(;h 
I  s[)ent  in  these  mountains,  my  attention  was  called  to  the  mild 
ojjcn  region  lying  between  the  Deer  Lodge  valley  and  Fort 
Laramie,  Dakota  Tor.,  where  the  buffalo  roamed  in  millions 
through  the  winter,  and  which,  during  that  S('as(m,  constituted 
the  great  himting  grounds  of  the  Crows,  Blackteet,  and  otJier 
mountain  tribes.  Upon  inv(!stigating  the  i)eculiarities  of  tho 
country,  I  learn(;d  from  the  Indians,  and  afterwards  confirmed 
by  my  own  explorations,  the  fact  of  the  existence  of  an  iutijiito 
number  of  hot  S2)rings  at  the   headwaters  of  the   Missoiu'i, 


ft 


^1 
1, 


M 


234 


INn.UENCE   OF  CLIM.VTE. 


Columbia  and  Yellowstone  Elvers,  and  that  hot  geysers,  similar 
to  those  of  California,  existed  at  the  head  of  the  Yellowstone  ; 
that  this  line  of  hot  springs  was  traced  to  the  Big  Horn,  "where 
a  coal-oil  spring,  similar  in  all  respects  to  those  worked  in 
West  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  exists,  and  where  I  am  sanguine 
in  believing  that  the  whole  country  is  underlaid  with  immense 
coal  fields.  Here,  then,  was  a  feature  sufficient  to  create  gi'eat 
modifications  of  climate,  not  local  in  its  efi'ect,  but  which  even 
extends  for  several  hundred  miles  from  the  Red  Buttes,  on  the 
Platte,  to  the  plains  of  the  Columbia.  The  meteorological  sta- 
tistics collected  during  a  great  number  of  years  ha"e  enabled 
us  to  trace  an  isochimcnal  line  across  the  continent,  from  St. 
Joseph's,  Missouri,  to  the  Pacific  ;  and  the  direction  taken  by 
this  line  is  wonderful,  and  worthy  the  most  important  attention 
in  all  future  legislation  that  looks  towards  the  travel  and  settle- 
ment of  this  country.  This  line,  which  leaves  St.  Joseph's  in 
latitude  4.0°,  follows  the  general  line  of  the  Platte  to  Fort  Lara- 
mie, where,  from  newly  introduced  causes,  it  tends  north-west- 
wardly,  between  the  AVind  River  chain  and  the  Black  Hills, 
crossing  the  sr.mmit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  latitude  47"  ; 
showing  that  ir  the  interval  from  St.  Joseph's  it  had  gained  six 
degrees  of  latitude.  Tracuig  it  still  further  westward,  it  goes 
as  high  as  48°,  and  develops  itself  in  a  fan-like  shape  in  the 
plains  of  the  Columbia.  Prom  Fort  Laramie  to  the  Clark's 
Fork,  I  call  this  an  atmo^r)hcric  river  of  heat,  varying  in  width 
from  one  to  one  himdred  miles.  On  its  either  side,  north  and 
south,  are  walls  of  cold  air,  and  which  are  so  clearly  p  icepti- 
ble,  that  you  always  detect  when  you  arc  upon  its  sh  orei  . 

"  It  v'ould  seem  natural  that  the  largo  volume  of  air  in  mo- 
tion between  the  Wind  River  chain  and  the  Black  Hills  must 
receive  a  certain  amount  of  heat  as  it  passes  over  the  line  of 
hot  boiling  springs  here  found*,  which,  added  to  the  great  heat 
evolved  from  the  large  volumes  of  water  here  existing,  which  is 
constantly  cumulative,  must  all  tend  to  modify  its  temperature 
to  the  extent  that  the  thermometer  detects.  The  j^revalent 
dii'ection  of  the  winds,  the  physical  face  of  the  country,  its  alti- 
tude, and  the  large  volume  of  water,  all,  doubtless,  enter  to 
create  this  modification  ;  but  from  whatsoever  cause  it  arises, 
it  exists  as  a  fact  that  must  for  all  time  enter  as  an  element 
worthy  of  every  attention  in  linos  of  travel  and  communication 
from  the  eastern  plains  to  the  north  Pacific.  A  comparison  of 
the  altitude  of  the  South  Pass,  with  the  country  on  its  every 
side,  with  Mullan's  Pass,  further  to  the  north,  may  be  useful  in 
this  connection.  TJie  South  Pass  has  an  altitude  of  seven 
thousand  four  hundred  and  cighty-nme  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.     The  Wind  River  chain,  to  its  north,  rises  till  it  attains, 


IMi 


AGRICULTUJIAL  AND  GEAZING  CAPABILITIES. 


235 


at  Fremont's  Peak,  an  elevation  of  13,570  feet,  while  to  the 
north,  the  mountains  increase  in  altitude  till  they  culminate  to 
an  elevation  of  15,000  feet ;  while  the  plains  to  the  cast  have  an 
elevation  of  0,000  feet,  and  the  mountains  to  the  -west,  forming 
the  oast  rim  of  the  great  basin,  have  an  elevation  of  8,234  feet, 
and  the  country  between  it  and  the  South  Pass  an  elevation  of 
6,234  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  highest  point  on  the 
road  in  the  summit  lino  at  Mullan's  Pass  has  an  elevation  of 
0,000  feet,  which  is  lower  by  1,489'feet  than  the  South  Pass, 
and  allowing  Avliat  wo  find  to  be  here  the  case,  viz. :  280  ieei  of 
altitude  for  each  degi'ee  of  temperature,  we  see  that  Mullan's 
Pass  cnjoj's  six  degrees  of  milder  temperatiu'e,  due  to  this  dif- 
ference of  altitude  alone.  At  the  South  Pass  are  many  high 
snow  peaks,  as  Fremont's  Peak,  Three  T'ctons,  Laramie  Peak, 
Long's  Peak  and  others,  all  of  which  musc  tend  to  modify  the 
temperature  ;  whereas,  to  the  north  we  have  no  high  snow 
peaks,  but  the  mountains  have  a  general  elevation  of  from  5,000 
to  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  tho  sea,  and  of  most  marked 
uniformity  m  point  of  altitude. 

"  The  high  range  of  the  T\'md  Eiver  chain  stands  as  a  curvi- 
linear wall  to  deflect  and  direct  the  currents  of  the  atmosphere 
as  they  sweep  across  the  continent.  (By-the-by,  whence  arises 
the  name  of  the  Wind  Kivcr  chain  ?)  All  their  slopes  are  well 
located  to  reflect  back  the  direct  rays  of  the  heat  of  the  sun  to 
the  valleys  that  lay  at  their  bases.  These  valleys,  already 
warm  by  virtue  of  the  hot  springs  existing  among  them,  receive 
this  accumulative  heat,  which  driven  by  the  new  currents  of 
cold  air  from  tho  plains,  rises  and  moves  onward  in  the  form  of 
a  river  towards  the  valleys  of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  where  it 
joins  the  milder  current  from  the  Pacific,  and  difluses  over  tho 
whole  region  a  mild,  healthy,  invigoratuag  and  useful  climate." 

Agricultueal  A^■D  Grazing  Capabilities. — The  amount  of 
agricultural  land  between  the  4Gth  and  4''th  parallels  of  North 
latitude,  may  be  safqly  estimated  at  tLousan  is  of  square  miles, 
extending  from  Wallar-Walla  valley  eastwarci,  through  the  Bit- 
ter Eoot  valley  to  Fort  ]3enton,  situated  at  tre  head  of  naviga- 
tion on  tho  Missouri  Eivor.  This  roiite  possesses  a  favorable 
f'limate,  bemg  on  the  line  of  proposed  Northern  Pacific  Eail- 
road,  extending  from  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  to  Columbia  Eiver,  or 
Puget's  Sound. 

"The  experience  of  all  persons  travolhng  through  this  re- 
gion," says  Capt.  Mullan,  "  has  been  that,  fi-om  tho  Columbia  to 
the  Missouri  Elvers,  finer  gi'asses  have  never  anywhere  been 
seen ;  the  number  and  condition  of  tho  stocks  that  iced  upon 
the  wild  grass  alone  shows  V<oth  their  abundance  and  nutrition. 


>::  ft 


m 

IS 
'•:|S 


236 


IKFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Wild  hay  can  be,  and  is,  cut  from  tliousands  of  acres.  The 
grass  is  mostly  a  wild  bimch  grass,  growing  fi'om  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches  high,  and  covering  tlie  entire  country.  Horses 
and  horned-stock  by  thousands,  and  sheep  by  hundreds,  all  be- 
speak the  wealth  tliat  is  wrapped  up  in  the  native  grasses  of 
the  North  Pacific  region,  and  I  confidently  look  forward  to  see- 
ing the  wealth  of  ihoso  beautiful  mountain  valleys  yet  consist 
in  the  thousands  of  fleecy  fiocks  to  be  here  sheared  ;  and  if  the 
streams  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  themselves  car  ght  and 
harnessed  to  the  spindles  and  looms  of  wool  manufactories  to 
be  there  erected,  that  the  annual  shipments  of  wool  to  eastern 
markets  will  constitute  a  trade  replete  with  wealth  and  mag- 
nitude." 

Northern  PaciGc  Railroad  Route. 

(CojiieJ/ruiii  (iov.  I'Jaac  F.  Sti-.vuns'  Ucport.) 

"  In  an  examination  of  that  country  (now  forming  part  of 
Montana  Territory),  which  I  made  in  1853,  '54,  '55,  the  passes 
of  the  liocky  Mountains,  '  Hell  Gate  '  and  '  Cadet's  Pass,'  were 
crossed  by  my  parties  in  the  months  of  December,  January, 
February  and  March,  in  the  years  1853-54,  and  in  no  one  of 
these  passes  did  they  find  more  than  fifteen  or  twenty  inches 
of  snow. 

"  The  mean  Winter  temperature  of  Fort  Benton  (47^49'  N. 
lat.),  in  1853-54,  was  25^  above  zero."  The  average  at  Mon- 
treal, on  the  lino  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railroad,  for  the  same 
year  was  13 ',  and  for  a  mean  of  ten  years,  17^  above  zero.  At 
Quebec  it  was,  in  1853-54,  ll'^  aboA^e  zero,  and  for  a  mean  of 
ten  years,  13"^  above  zero. 

"  At  Fort  Snelling  (44°53'  N.  lat.\  on  the  great  lines  through 
Minnesota  from  St.  Paul  to  Pembma,  and  from  St.  Paul  to 
Breckinridge,  the  mean  Winter  temperature  of  1853-54  was 
12^,  and  the  mean  of  tliirty-five  winters  IG^  above  zero.  Thus, 
in  the  winter  of  1853-54,  an  unusually  cold  winter,  Fort  Benton 
was  12°  Fahr.  warmer  than  Montreal,  14^  warmer  than  Que- 
bec, and  13°  warmer  than  Fort  Snelling.  Looking  to  the  Bit- 
ter Root  valley,  we  find  its  average  temperature  in  the  winter 
of  1853-54  to  be  25°,  and  in  1854-55,  30°  above  zero.  The 
great  .'st  cold  in  the  winter  of  1853-54  was  — 2'J'^  below  zero  at 
Cantonment  Stevens  (40^20'  N.  lat.)  At  Fort  SneUiug  it  was 
— 30^,  at  Montreal  — 29-^,  and  at  Quebec  — 34'-'  belov  zero  ; 
from  these  results  it  appears,  that  on  this  route,  the  gi  cutest 
cold  iti  not  equal  to  the  greatest  cold  on  the  railroad  roui3s  of 
Lower  Canada.  The  same  fact  is  imqucstionably  true  of  the 
great  artery  of  Russia  from  Moscow  to  St.  Petersburg. 


^'  I 


NORTHERN  TACIFIC  RAILROAD  liOUlT.. 


237 


*'  Take  the  number  of  cold  days  when  the  average  lompera- 
ture  was  below  zero,  and  we  find  the  following  result :  The 
average  temperature  was  below  zero  twelve  days  at  Fort  Ben- 
ton, ten  days  at  Cantonment  Stevens,  cigliteen  days  at  Fort 
Snelling,  eighteen  days  at  Montreal,  and  twenty-three  days  at 
Quebec.  Thus,  you  see  that  there  w^ere  more  cold  days  on  the 
lino  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Eaihvay,  and  of  the  railroads  in  Min- 
nesota, than  on  this  Northern  route.  Having  compavcd  the 
average  winter  temperatures  and  the  number  of  cold  days,  let 
us  look  at  the  climate  in  another  point  of  view.  Take  the  num- 
ber of  warm  days  when  the  average  temperature  was  above  the 
fi-eezing  point,  and  I  find  that  at  Fort  Benton  the  thermometer 
was  forty-three  out  of  ninety  days,  and  at  Cantonment  Stevens 
thirty-two  out  of  ninety  days  above  the  frccziiDg  point,  against 
only  six  dayj5  out  of  ninety  at  Fort  Snelling,  five  days  out  of 
uinety  at  Quebec,  and  eight  days  out  of  ninety  at  Montreal — 
all  in  the  Avint<3r  of  ISSS-O-l. 

"  But  it  may  be  objected,  that  the  temperature  of  Fort  Ben- 
ton and  Cantonment  Stevens  is  not  the  measure  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  intermediate  rocky  range  through  which  the 
route  passes,  and  which  must  be  much  lower.  Fortunately,  the 
party  of  Lieut.  Grover,  which  has  been  already  referred  to  in 
connection  Avith  the  depth  of  snow,  made  observations  of  tem- 
perature on  the  route,  and  it  has  been  found  by  careful  com- 
parison that  the  party  made  the  passage  during  the  extreme 
cold  weather  of  that  winter,  and  the  temperatures  observed, 
therefore,  indicate  the  extremost  cold  of  the  pass,  and  not  the 
usual  cold.  The  mean  temperature  in  the  pass  fi'om  January 
12th  to  January  23d,  12  days,  was  — 10'  below  zero.  At  Can- 
tonment Stevens,  the  moan  ten)pei.vture  was  — 5°,  and  at  Fort 
Benton,  — T"'  below  zero.  The  greatest  mean  cold  of  any  day 
observed  in  the  pass  was  — 22^,  against  — 21''  at  Fort  Snelling, 
and  a  still  lower  figure  at  Pembhia  (49^  N.  lat.) 

"  That  the  winter  of  1853-51  was  unusually  cold  in  the  moun- 
tain region  of  the  Northern  route,  is  shown  fi'om  the  fact,  in  the 
Bitter  lioot  valley,  the  thermometer  never  went  down  to  zero 
in  the  winter  of  1851-55,  whilst  it  fell  as  low  as  — 29^  below 
zero  in  the  winter  of  1853-51.  Tlu^  average  mean  temperature 
of  this  valley  in  the  .vintcr  of  1853-51  was  25 ',  whereas,  in 
1851-55,  it  was  ,  0  '  Fahr.  Tiie  same  general  residt,  deter- 
mined by  observation,  as  regards  the  temperature  of  the  pass, 
would  be  arrived  at  by  using  the  formula,  that  every  1,000  feet 
in  altitude  Avould  depress  the  temperature  three  degrees.  Now, 
only  six  miles  of  the  pass  is  more  than  5,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
the  greatest  altitude  being  but  0,011  feet,  and  the  average 
height  of  the  pass  is  but  about  4,000  tect." 


U 


mn 


^^ 


238 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


The  c,"  tance  from  St.  Paul  and  the  western  end  of  Lake  Su- 
perior, via  Fort  Benton,  to  the  shores  of  Puget's  Sound  is,  in 
round  numbers,  1,900  miles  ;  or  a  Httlo  over  3,000  miles  from 
the  City  of  New  York,  extending  for  a  great  part  of  the  distance 
on  the  Isothermal  line  of  50^  mean  annual  temperature. 

Meteorological  Abstract  for  Esquimalt,  Vancouver's  Island, 
For  tho  Year  1860-Cl.    North  Latitude,  48''30'. 


Months. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean.  Temp.  M'thly  Kangc. 

No.  of 

°  Fahr. 

"  Faiir. 

"  Fahr. 

"  Falir.  fmc  days. 

March, 

.      59.00 

34.00 

45.31 

25.00 

13 

April, 

.    61.50 

43.50 

51.74 

18.00 

19 

May, 

.    62.50 

46.50 

55.50 

16.00 

20 

June, 

.    68.00 

52.50 

59.44 

15.50 

24 

July, 

.    68.50 

54.50 

61.00 

15.00 

22 

August,     . 

.     72.00 

55.00 

62.10 

17.00 

27 

September, 

.    65.50 

50.00 

58.00 

15.50 

14 

October,   . 

.    60.50 

45.50 

54.10 

15.00 

9 

November, 

.    61.00 

40.50 

49.16 

20.50 

10 

December, 

.    59.00 

28.50 

42.62 

30.50 

13 

January,  . 

.    51.50 

23.50 

39.20 

28.00 

9 

Februar^^ 

.    50.50 

29.50 

43.17 

21.00 

7 

Mean  annual  temperature,  51°  Fahi 

• 

SYNOrSIS  OF 

WINDS. 

Southerly  "Winds,  62  per  cent. 
Northerly      "        25 


Easterly  Winds,    .  7  per  cent. 
Westerly  it  Varia'e,  6       " 


Note. — Of  the  3G5  days  of  the  year,  no  fewer  than  183,  or  50  per  cent.,  were 
fine,  the  remainder  being  dull,  showery,  rainy,  &c.  Snow  fell  on  12  days  in 
small  quaitities  ;  the  thermometer  seldom  falling  below  freezing. 


Il 


PART    XII. 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


i 


o.  of 
days. 

13 

19 

20 

24 

22 

27 

14 

9 

10 

13 

9 

7 


The  climate  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  and  their 
inhabitants,  are  of  an  heterogeneous  character  ;  being  diflScitlt 
to  delineate.  The  temperature  of  the  climate,  and  its  influence 
on  the  human  race,  varies  according  to  the  altitude  of  the  coun- 
try— thus  you  encounter  the  tropical,  sub-tropical  and  temper- 
ate climates  in  a  journey  of  a  few  hundred  miles  from  the  coast. 
Here  we  find  a  degree  of  culture,  refinement  and  haughtiness, 
with  indolence,  ignorance,  and  a  ferocity  of  character,  which 
engenders  feuds  and  civil  war,  unfitting  the  inhabitants  from 
maintaining  a  purely  republican  form  of  government.  The 
experiment  of  making  Mexico  a  monarchy  or  an  empire,  will, 
no  doubt,  soon  bt  solved,  and  a  renewed  attempt  made  to 
establisl.  a  pure  republican  form  of  government. 

The  Mexican  family  consists  of  several  branches,  besides  the 
Castilian  race,  whoso  blood  is  intermingled  with  the  natives.* 
Tlie  pure  Mexicans  or  Aztecs  occupy  nearly  the  entire  extent 
of  the  territory  stretching  from  the  25th  parallel  to  tlie  lake  of 
Nicaragua.  The  numerous  monuments  of  their  early  attain- 
ments in  arts  and  science,  in  their  pyramids  and  roads,  their 
idiographic  writing,  division  of  time,  and  religious  institutions, 
assign  to  this  people  the  highest  rank  in  the  intellect'  A  scale 
of  the  numerous  races  which  belong  to  the  New  World. 

The  population  of  Mexico  is  about  8,000,000,  of  whom  about 
4,500,000  are  Lidians,  2,500,000  Mestizos  or  mixed  races, 
1,000,000  whites,  and  10,000  negroes.  The  three  original  races 
are  the  Mexican  Indians,  European  whites,  and  African  negroes, 
and  from  their  intermixture,  in  dilfercnt  degrees,  no  less  than 


*  The  ftboriginal  Indians  and  Africans  or  noproes,  who  woro  formnrly  in  a 
Btato  of  slavery,  coastitutc  a  great  jiortioii  of  the  jjopulation.  Besides,  there  are 
various  mixed  races— Mestizos,  Zambos,  Muhittos,  Quadroous,  &c. 


240 


INFLU^U'CE  OF  CLIMATE. 


twenty  different  castes  are  specified,  besides  the  produce  of 
other  unions  which  have  no  specific  name.  In  no  portion  of 
the  earth,  except  in  a  tropical  region,  would  this  deraoraliijing 
mixture  of  the  races  occur  to  so  great  an  extent. 

Mexico,  lying  between  15^58'  and  32°  north  latitude,  is 
hounded  on  the  east  by  the  Giilf  of  Mexico,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  being  about  1,900  miles  in  length,  and  1,100 
miles  in  its  greatest  breadth.  A  large  portion  of  Mexico  is 
traversed  by  a  continuation  of  the  Cordilleras  de  los  Andes, 
which  runs  through  its  whole  length,  and  renders  the  surface 
extremely  varied.  On  the  north  of  Guatemala,  the  mountains 
diverge  into  two  chains,  one  of  wliich  follows  the  coast  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  other  that  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
vast  tract  between  them,  comprising  about  three-fifths  of  the 
Avhole  area,  consists  of  a  table-land,  called  Analmac,  being  an 
extensive  plateau  6,000  to  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ; 
and,  owing  to  that  great  elevation,  possessing  a  decided  tem- 
perate climate,  though  lying  within  the  tropics.  Some  very 
high  mountains,  however,  rise  above  the  table-land,  and  it  is 
also  divided  in  several  places  by  well-defined  ridges  ;  but,  in 
general,  the  surface  is  broken  by  a  few  transverse  valleys,  and 
in  some  directions  it  is  quite  unbroken  by  either  depressions  or 
elevations. 

"  The  physical  geography  of  the  country  is  very  extraordi- 
nary. Perhaps  no  region  of  the  globe  presents  such  varieties 
of  surface  or  climate  within  the  same  extent  of  tenitory.  Along 
the  coast  there  is  a  narrow  fringe  of  lowland.  Advancing  into 
the  interior,  the  ground  rapidly  rises,  sometimes  mountain 
ranges  stretch  precipitously  like  a  mighty  wall  for  many  leagues, 
sometimes  the  ascent  is  more  gi'adual,  and  slopes  upward  at  a 
scarcely  perceptible  angle.  But  whatever  may  be  the  gradient 
the  ascent  is  continuous  till  an  elevation  of  from  5,000  to  8,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  is  attained,  and  a  vast  plateau  of 
table-land  extends  for  many  hundred  miles.  These  broad 
sweeps  of  level  plains  on  the  tops  of  the  mountain  chains  occu- 
py almost  the  entire  area  of  Mexico,  and  form  the  platform 
from  which  the  volcanic  and  other  mountains  rise  into  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow. 

"  These  table-lands  rise  to  different  heights,  and  enjoy  a 
varied  climate,  subject,  however,  to  very  slight  annual  changes 
from  season  to  season.  This  plain  is  widest  at  the  latitude  of 
the  capital,  where  it  spreads  out  to  300  or  400  miles  in  breadth. 


MEXICO. 


2^1 


a 

08 

of 

ill. 


Its  eastern  or  Atlantic  side  is  7,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  it  gradually  decreases  to  a  height  of  about  4,000  feet 
as  it  approaches  the  shore  of  the  Pacific.  Of  course,  so  enor- 
mous a  space  does  not  literally  present  an  unbroken  surface  ; 
but  this  is  actually  the  case  for  many  leagues  together,  and  car- 
riaf^es  may  roll  down  from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  El  Paso,  in 
Chihuahua,  a  distance  of  twelve  hundred  miles  ;  that,  too,  with- 
out encountering  much  change  in  the  temperature  of  the  sea- 
sous.  The  mountains  Avhich  enclose  the  great  plain  of  Auahuac 
on  the  eastern  side  are  called  the  Sierra  Madre.  In  some 
places  they  rise  to  the  height  of  17,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea." 

The  Mountains  of  Mexico  exhibit  numerous  peaks  of  great 
elevation.     The  loftiest  are  as  follows  ; 

Popocatepetl," 
Pico  d'Oj-izava,"    . 
Yxtaccihuatl,* 
Cerro  de  Aiusco,    . 
Nevado  Toluca, 
Cofre  do  Perote,-'  . 
Volcano  de  Cohma,* 
Zempoaltepctl,"     . 
Pico  de  Quincoa,   . 
Soconasco,""  . 

As  regards  dbante,  Mexico  is  divided  into  three  regions,  the 
t terras  calientes,  the  ticrras  templadav,  and  the  tierras  frias,  or 
the  hot,  the  temperate,  and  the  cool  regions.  The  lirst,  the 
low  grounds  along  the  coasts  of  the  two  seas  ;  and  the  mean 
annual  temperature  is  about  78°  Fahr.  It  is  especially  suited 
for  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  cotton,  indigo  and  banannas.  Here 
all  the  products  of  the  tropics  are  to  be  met  with  in  gi*eat  luxu- 
riance, and  their  rank  growth  in  the  hot,  damp  atmosphere 
begets  the  terrible  vomito  (yellow  fever;,  which  desolates  the 
coast.  From  the  virulence  of  this  disease.  Vera  Cniz  has  been 
ajitly  named  "  the  city  of  death."  Its  harbor  is  shall(jw  and 
exposed,  being  swept  from  October  to  April  by  dangerous 
winds,  called  "  nortes,"  when  the  air  is  tilled  with  sand,  the  sky 
is  dark  with  clouds,  and  the  whole  coast  line  is  one  unbroken 
sheet  of  foam.  During  the  unhealthy  season  of  the  vomito, 
from  May  to  November,  the  merchants  and  their  families 
usually  retire  to  Jalapa,  where  "  reigns  eternal  spring."  "  Here 
hundreds  of  trees,  plants,  shrubs,  cereals  and  parasites  spring 

*  Volcanoes. 


Foct. 

Mexico, 

.     17,735 

Vera  Cruz, 

.     17,388 

Mexico, 

.    15,700 

(( 

.    15,800 

(( 

.    15,150 

Vera  Cruz, 

.    13,514 

Colima, 

.    12,200 

Oaxaca, 

.    11,300 

Michoacan,     . 

.     11,000 

Chiapas, 

.      8,000 

■Jii 


242 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


almost  spontaneously  from  the  soil,  and  render  the  necessary 
labor  of  man  insignificant." 

The  second  regions  are  of  compar;itivcly  limited  extent, 
occupying  only  the  slopes  that  rise  above  the  coast-lands,  with 
an  elevation  of  from  3,000  to  5,000  feet,  and  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  from  G8°  to  70^,  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  being 
equally  unknown.  The  Mexican  oak  and  most  of  the  fniits 
and  cerealia  of  Europe  flourish  in  this  genial  clime,  the  hu- 
midity of  w]\ich  produces  great  beauty  and  strength  of  vegeta- 
tion. The  cold  region  includes  all  the  vast  table-land  5,000 
feet  and  upwards  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

In  the  City  of  INtexico,  at  an  elevation  of  7,400  feet,  the  ther- 
mometer has  sometimes  fallen  below  the  freezmg  point.  In 
the  coldest  season,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  day  varies 
from  55^^  to  70-',  while  in  summer  the  thermometer  seldom  rises 
in  the  shade  above  7G.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  year 
may  be  taken  at  GO^,  being  about  that  of  Rome.  In  the  lati- 
tude of  Mexico  City,  the  snow-line  varies  from  14,000  to  15,000 
feet ;  but,  whenever  the  elevation  is  greater  than  8,000  feet,  the 
climate  is  rough  and  disagreeable.  Owing  to  the  rarity,  or 
thinness  of  the  air,  vegetati(m  is  not  so  vigorous  on  the  table- 
land as  in  the  tierras  calieutes,  and  the  plants  of  Europe  do 
not  succeed  so  well  as  in  the  tierras  templadas. 

In  the  tropical  and  central  regions,  as  far  north  as  28^,  there 
are  only  two  seasons  ;  that  of  rain,  lasting  fi'om  July  to  the 
middle  of  September,  and  the  dry  season,  continuing  from 
October  till  the  end  of  May.  From  the  24th  to  the  30th  paral- 
lel, rain  falls  less  frequently ;  biit  this  deficiency  is  compen- 
sated by  the  abundance  of  snov/  in  January  and  February. 
The  southern  portion  of  Mexico,  however,  is  decidedl^'^  tropical 
in  its  character. 

In  the  eastern  CordiUera,  gi'anite,  though  forming  the  body 
of  the  mountains,  in  seldom  met  with  on  the  surface.  It  is 
overlaid  with  porphpv,  greenstone,  amygdaloid,  basalt  and 
other  igneous  rocks.  In  the  western  chain,  however,  granite 
appears  on  the  surface.  The  great  central  plateau,  between 
15-^  and  20^  N.  latitude,  is  a  mass  of  poi-phyry,  characterized 
by  the  constant  presence  of  hornblende  and  the  complete 
absence  of  quartz.  Here  are  foimd  larj^e  deposits  of  gold  and 
silver.  Iron  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  Guadalaxara, 
Michoacan  and  Zacatecas,  and  copper  in  Michoacan  and  Gua- 
naxuato.  Tin  is  obtained  partly  from  mines,  but  principally 
from  the  washings  of  the  ravines.  Zinc,  antimony  and  arsenic 
have  been  discovered.  Quicksilver  is  found  in  Queretaro.  The 
.soih  of  Mexico  are  noted  for  their  richness  and  fertility  ;  but 
over  so  large  a  territory,  there  must  necessarily  be  a  great 


THE  CLIMATE  OF  MEXICO. 


243 


variety,  anil  much  tliat  is  unfit  for  cultivation.     Tlio  principal 
barren  regions  occur  in  the  north,  beyond  the  29tli  parallel. 

Valley  of  Mexico. — It  is  difficult  to  picture  a  fairer  scene 
than  that  presented  by  the  Mexican  capital,  lying,  as  it  does, 
near  to  the  waters  of  Lake  Tczcucau.  in  the  heart  of  this 
beautiful,  healthy  and  furtilii  valley.  On  which  ever  side 
you  turn,  there  rise  the  serrated  ridges  of  the  (>ordilleraa,  en- 
compassmg  the  city  with  a  gigantic  azure  belt.  The  streets 
run  ni  long  and  unbroken  straight  lines,  bisecting  one  another 
at  right  angles  ;  and  in  the  clear  atmospliere  of  the  table-land, 
the  varied  color  of  the  houses  is  beautifully  toned  down  by  the 
back-ground  of  the  puii^le  hills.  To  the  south,  two  volcanoes, 
which  overtop  the  other  peaks  of  the  Sierra,  raise  their  majes- 
tic summits  covered  with  eternal  snow,  which,  in  the  Hglit  of 
the  evening  sun,  put  on  a  pale  purple  tint,  here  and  there 
flecked  with  delicate  ruby.  Lakes  Chalco  and  Xochimilco  lie 
to  the  south  of  the  capital,  Tczcuco  adjoins  it,  and  Lakes  San 
Christoval  and  Zunipanzo  are  on  the  north.  These  lakes  are 
drained  by  means  of  an  artificial  canal  runnmg  into  the  lUver 
Yuba,  which  flows  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  Climate  of  Mexico. — A  late  writer  remarks :  "  It  would 
require  more  space  than  I  can  claim  to  describe  the  ever- 
changing  scenery  along  the  road  fi'om  the  foot-hills  of  the 
Mexican  Cordillera  to  the  capital.  In  three  days,  as  many 
climates  will  have  been  passed  through,  with  the  attendant 
variations  in  fohage.  From  Vera  Cruz  to  Paso  del  Macho,  70 
or  80  miles  inland,  the  climate,  scenery  and  verdure  are  all 
tropical.  The  landscape  seems  to  seethe  and  glow  under  the 
heat  of  a  torrid  sim,  whoso  rays,  glittering  in  a  thousand  curious 
forms  of  dense  foliage  and  strange  plants  and  flowers,  render 
the  country  a  vast  hot-bed,  bursting  continually  into  new  forms 
of  Ufe  and  beauty.  Hastening  through  this  enchanting  but 
unhealthy  region,  the  cars  soon  bear  us  to  the  commencement 
of  the  stage-travel,  where,  in  a  veritable  Concord  coach,  and 
drawn  by  nine  horses  harnessed  as  only  a  Mexican  knows  how, 
we  enter  the  foot-hills  of  the  Cordillera,  and  by  night  have 
reached  the  temperate  region  Avhere  peaches,  grapes  and  the 
northern  cereals  flourish  side  by  side  with  the  tropical  fruits 
and  cotton,  cocoa,  coft'ee,  rice  and  tobacco.  Jalapa,  situated 
4,000  feet  above  the  ocean,  may  be  said  to  enjoy  perpetual 
spring,  being  favored  with  a  healthy  and  invigorating  climate. 
At  Orizaba  and  Cordova  we  are  almost  under  the  shadow  of 
the  vast  volcanic  cone  of  Orizaba,  snow-crowned  to  its  peak, 
and  gi'een  with  dense  foliage  up  to  the  snow-line. 

"  After  passing  Puebla  we  have  mounted  to  an  elevation  of 


II      U 


M 


Wi 


244 


INFLUENCE   OF  CLIILVTE. 


9,000  feet,  and  are  in  a  cold,  mountainous  region,  whose  natural 
features  of  ctorile  wastes,  rocky  passes,  and  solemn  pines  sigh- 
ing mournfully  in  the  blast,  contrast  sadly  with  the  fairy  land 
we  were  in  but  yesterday.  You  leave  Pucbla  before  daylight, 
and  can  thus  enjoy  the  majestic  sight  of  the  sunrise  tints  upon 
tlio  summits  of  the  gi'eat  volcanoes  of  Popocatapctl  and  Iztac- 
cihuatl— the  first  18,000  and  the  last  10,000  feet  abovo  the  sea. 
Pojiocatapetl  with  us  was  in  sight  all  day — in  fact,  the  road 
leads  almost  around  its  very  base,  along  Avhicli  the  diligence 
was  whirhug  oflf  the  leagues,  giving  us  ample  opportunity  to 
feast  our  eyes  on  the  dizzy  peak  reaching  apparently  into  the 
unclouded  heavens,  and  crowned  with  2,000  I'cct  of  a  snow-cap, 
dazzling  to  behold. 

"  The  descent  from  the  highlands  around  the  great  valley  of 
Mexico  into  the  plains  beneath  is  made  at  a  full  trot.  From 
these  hights,  Cortez  and  his  mailed  cavaliers  first  saw  the 
Aztec  capital,  said  by  the  Spanish  chroniclers  to  have  contained 
its  millions  of  jieople.  However  that  may  have  been,  the 
stranger  who  now  Aisits  the  Mexican  caj^ital,  will  find  a  far  more 
populous  and  beaiitiful  city  than  ho  would  have  imagined  from 
any  previous  acquaintance  he  may  have  had  with  places  of 
Spanish  origin.  The  streets  are  generally  wide,  well  paved  and 
clean,  and  in  all  respects  superior  to  the  old  part  of  Havana, 
which  was  laid  out  at  nearly  the  same  time. 

"  The  City  of  Mexico  is  full  of  interest  to  the  stranger,  nnd 
offers  innumerable  historical  reminiscences.  The  localities 
commemorating  the  great  Indian  Emj^ire  of  the  Montezumas, 
which,  u  .der  Prescott's  word  painting  have  become  classical 
ground,  are  visited  with  renewed  pleasure  after  reading  those 
vivid  descriptions.  A  remarkable  fact  connected  with  the  ad- 
vent of  the  Europeans  here  it  the  gi'eat  increase  in  the  popula- 
tion of  the  capital.  In  18(51,  about  the  time  of  the  French 
intervention,  the  city  was  commonly  estimated  at  al^out  180,000. 
These  had  been  the  figures,  's\dtli  some  few  liuctuations,  for 
20  3'ears.  The  population  at  present  is  variously  estimated  at 
from  250,000  to  280,000,  and  it  is  jiossible  that  a  correct  census 
would  reach  even  beyond  the  last-named  estimate." 

This  increase  of  population  is  mainly  attributable  to  its 
healthy  climate  ;  although  situated  within  the  tropics,  in  north 
latitude  19°25',  it  is  elevated  7,500  feet  above  the  ocean,  enjoy- 
ing a  mean  annual  temperature  of  G0°  Fahrenheit,  varying  but 
a  few  degrees  from  season  to  season.  Here  the  wealthy  and 
the  gay,  together  with  the  shopkeepers  and  artizans  of  all 
kinds,  the  musical  and  literary  celebrities,  delight  to  congre- 
gate. 


■IP 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


215 


I'f 


I 


Climate  and  Topography  of  Central  America. 

"  In  its  physical  aspect  and  configuration  of  snrfico,"  sajs 
E.  G.  Squior,  "  it  has  very  justly  been  obHcrved  that  it  is  an 
epitome  of  all  other  countries  and  climates  of  the  globe.  High 
mountain  ran^^os,  isolated  volcanic  peaks,  elev!i<^^d  table-lands, 
deep  valleys,  l)road  and  fertile  planis  and  extensive  alluvions 
are  here  found  grouped  together,  relieved  by  large  and  beauti- 
ful lakes  and  majestic  rivers  ;  the  -whole  teeming  Avith  animal 
and  vegetable  life,  and  possessing  every  variety  of  climate,  from 
torrid  heats  to  the  cool  and  bracing  temperature  of  eternal 
spring.  Situated  between  8^  and  17^  north  latitude,  were  it 
not  for  these  topographical  features,  the  general  temperature 
would  bo  somewhat  higher  than  that  of  the  West  Indies.  As 
it  is,  the  climate  of  the  coast  is  nearly  the  same  with  that  of 
the  islands  allu'^  ^d  to,  and  exceedingly  uniform.  It  is  modified 
someAvhat  by  the  shape  and  position  of  the  shore,  and  by  the 
proximity  ot  the  mountains,  as  well  as  by  the  prevailing  winds. 
The  heat  on  the  Pacific  coast  is  not,  hoAvever,  so  oppressive  as 
on  the  Atlantic  ;  less,  perhaps,  because  of  any  considerable  tlif- 
fercnce  of  temperature  than  on  account  of  the  greater  dryness 
and  purity  of  the  atmosphere. 

"  Li  the  northern  part  of  the  State  of  Guatemala,  in  what  is 
called  '  Los  Altos,'  the  Highlands,  the  average  temperature  is 
loAver  than  in  any  other  ])art  of  the  country.  Snow  sometimes 
falls  in  the  vicinity  of  Quezaltenango,  the  capital  of  this 
department,  as  Avell  as  on  the  high  plains  of  Intibucat  in  Hon- 
duras, but  soon  disappetu's,  as  the  thermometer  seldom  remains 
at  the  freezing  point  for  any  considerable  length  of  time.  In 
the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  Guatemala,  the  range  of  the  thermome- 
ter is  from  55^  to  8&^,  averaging  about  72^  Fahrenheit.  Vera 
Paz,  the  north-eastern  department  of  Guatemala,  and  embracing 
the  coast  below  Yucatan  to  the  Gulf  of  Dulce,  is  nearly  ten 
degrees  warmer.  This  coast,  from  Belize  downward  to  Izabal 
and  Santo  Tomas,  is  hot  and  unhealthy.  The  same  remark 
applies,  in  a  less  degree,  to  the  northern  and  eastern  coast  of 
Honduras,  from  Omoa  to  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios."  The  climate 
is  hot  and  moist  in  the  lowlands,  where  there  are  dense  forests ; 
but  is  milder  and  more  salubrious  on  the  elevated  table-lands. 
Earthquakes  are  frequent,  especially  in  the  j)lateaus,  and  nu- 
merous volcanoes  exist,  more  particularly  along  the  Pacitic 
coast  or  a  short  distance  inland. 

"  The  State  of  San  Salvador,"  says  Gordon,  "  lies,  on  an 
average,  considerably  lower  than  that  of  Guatemala,  but  the 
heat  is  never  oppressive  except  near  the  coast.  The  average 
temperature  of  the  City  of  San  Salvador  may  be  equal  in  the 


24G 


INFLUENCE  OP  CLIMATE. 


dry  season  to  tlio  South  of  France,  the  wet  season  being  about 
eight  degrees  colder  than  tho  dry.  Many  of  the  largo  towns  in 
this  state,  as  Sonsonato  and  San  Miguel,  are  situated  very  little 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  have  an  oppressively  hot  cli- 
mate, varying  fi'om  80"^  to  1)0^  in  the  wet  and  dry  seasons." 

Costa  Rica. — "  The  climate  of  Costa  Rica  is  very  humid,  the 
rain  falling  for  six  mouibs  of  the  year.  It  is  cool  and  healthy 
on  the  Pacitie  declivity,  excepting  the  immediate  coast ;  hot, 
wet,  and  unhealthy  on  the  Atlantic  ;  cold  and  salubrious  on  the 
table-lands  of  the  inttirior,  where  the  thermometer  ranges  from 
65°  to  75°  Fahrenheit  in  the  course  of  the  year.  It  must  be 
observed  that  tlie  ramy  season  on  the  Pacific  and  in  the  inte- 
rior is  from  Apiil  to  November;  bul,  upon  the  Atlantic  coast 
this  order  of  things  is  reversed,  an*  I  the  rainy  season  is  from 
November  to  February."  Anothe?.  writer  remarks,  that  the 
"  chmate  of  Costa  Rica  is  exceedingly  varied,  ranging  fi'om  50^ 
to  80°  of  Fahr.,  according  to  the  elevation." 

Honduras. — "  The  noi-thern  and  eastern  coast  of  Hondm'as 
has  a  higher  temperature  than  any  other  portion  of  the  State  ; 
it,  however,  dimmishos  rapidly  as  we  penetrate  inland.  The 
modifying  influences  of  the  neighboring  mountains  is  felt  even 
before  the  increase  in  altitude  becomes  perceptible.  Her  table- 
lands have,  of  course,  a  chmate  varying  with  their  hight  above 
the  sea,  and  theu'  exposure  to  the  prcvaihng  winds.  Conse- 
quently, there  can  be  no  generalization  on  the  subject  of  the 
climate  of  Honduras,  except  so  far  as  to  say  that  it  has  a 
variety  adapted  to  every  caprice,  and  a  temperature  suitable 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  products  of  almost  every  zone." 

TABLE    of  METEOI.OLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS, 
Made  in  the  City  of  Guatemala,  for  the  year  1857. 


, Tliermometcr. 

Months.        M.iximiim.  Miuimnin.  Yi 

3arly  Mean. 

Rainy  Days 

.  Fogs. 

Rain 

in  Inches. 

January, 

73.5 

38.9 

57.5 

4 

4 

.20 

February. 

81.0 

43.0 

63.0 

0 

6 

.00 

March, 

81.1 

46.0 

63.6 

5 

7 

.55 

April,    . 
May,     . 

88.7 

51.6 

68.9 

9 

10 

2.07 

102.3 

52.5 

68.1 

17 

7 

5.28 

June,     . 

82.3 

54.6 

67.1 

24 

5 

13.28 

July,     . 

81.3 

53.7 

66.2 

25 

7 

11.72 

August, 

80.9 

53.6 

66.2 

20 

10 

11.12 

September,  . 

77.9 

54.5 

66.0 

18 

10 

5.40 

October, 

82.4 

53.6 

05.6 

17 

9 

355 

November,    . 

80.2 

49.5 

64.6 

11 

8 

1.11 

December,    . 

77.0 
88.7 

46.5 

48.9 

62.6 
65.0 

5 
155 

4 

87 

.24 

For  the  year, 

54.52 

METEOROLOGICAL  OBSEKVATIONS. 


247 


.55 


No  Rain 

Variable 

Rain. 

No  Rain. 

durinfr  chaugoa. 

Wcathor. 

105 

110 

30 

1'20 

90 

125 

•40 

110 

100 

130 

45 

00 

From  information  collected  in  Guatemala,  M.  De  PuycTt  cou- 
structod  the  following  Table,  illustrativo  of  the  seasons  as 
marked  in  that  Kepublic  : 

LocaliticB. 
Atlantic  Coast, 
Pacific  Coast, 
Interior, 

Of  the  plateau  of  Guatemala,  lie  remarks  :  "  Here,  as  gene- 
rally throughout  the  interior,  the  mean  temperature  is  17°  of 
Reaumer  (to-*  Fahrenheit),  during  the  summer.  The  prevail- 
ing winds  are  from  the  north  ;  so  that  the  climate,  as  compared 
with  the  coast,  where  the  mean  temperature  is  22  ^  of  Reaumer 
(81.5°  Fahrenheit),  is  almost  cold,  or  at  least  so  regarded  by 
the  inhalntants  of  the  country." 

METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS  AT  RR'AS,  NICARAGUA,  1850-51. 
Date  of  Observation. 

September,  1850, 
October,         " 
November,      " 
December,      " 
January,   1851, 
Febniary,     " 
March,  " 

April,  " 

May,  " 

June,  ** 

July, 
August,        " 

Total  Mean,       .        .     77.42  8G.45       71.15       15.30 

Here  it  will  bo  observed  that  the  maximum  range  was  in  the 
month  of  May,  and  was  23°  Fahrenheit.  The  mean  range  for 
the  year,  however,  was  only  15.30°.  The  heat,  it  will  be  per- 
ceived, at  no  time  of  the  year  is  as  great  as  it  is  during  July 
and  August,  in  the  city  of  New  York. 

The  Rain  which  fell  during  the  same  period  is  as  follows  : 

September,  1850,  15.240  inches.'  April, 


Av.  Ther. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Range. 

o 

o 

o 

o 

78.12 

88 

71 

17 

77.00 

86 

70 

16 

78.42 

86 

74 

12 

77.11 

84 

72 

12 

7G.40 

87 

G9 

18 

7G.00 

84 

70 

14 

77.00 

84 

72 

12 

78.83 

88 

72 

16 

78.29 

91 

68 

23 

77.12 

88 

71 

17 

7G.98 

86 

71 

15 

76.20 

86 

71 

15 

October", 

K 

17.860 

November, 

C 

1.395 

December, 

<( 

3.210 

January, 

1851, 

.380 

Febriary, 

(( 

.000 

March, 

(( 

1.410 

It 


April,   1851, 

.430  inches 

May,       " 

.    9.145 

<< 

June,       " 

.  14.210 

(( 

July,       " 

.  22.640 

(( 

August,  " 

.  11.810 

(( 

Total  Inches, 

.  97.730 

i 

I 

i    • 


ii 

r 

.vy.1  IS 

;     ■ 

'    ' " 

i 

-  1. 

i- 

i- 

II 

-■■ 

243 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Belize. — The  British  estabHshment  of  Belize,  situated  lear 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan,  on  the 
Bay  of  Honduras,  in  Lat.  17°39'  north,  and  Long.  88^12'  west, 
has  a  temperature  and  cHmatc  which  may  be  regarded  as  com- 
mon to  the  entire  eastern  coast  of  Guatemala  and  Yucatan, 
and  probably  not  far  different  from  that  of  the  islands  off  the 
same  coast  in  the  Bay  of  Honduras.  Observations  made  here, 
under  the  authority  of  the  governor,  for  the  year  1848,  gave 
the  following  results  : 

TABLE  OF  THERMOMETRICAL  OBSERVATIONS 
Made  at  Belize  (British  Honduras). 


Months. 

Average  Maximum. 

Avcrafro 

Minimum. 

Fall  of  Rain. 

January, 

.    82° 

Fahr. 

66° 

Fahr. 

2.7  inches. 

February, 

.    85 

73 

4.2 

March, 

.    83 

75 

.0 

April, 
May, 

.    89 

74 

.0 

.    89 

75 

2.5 

June, 

.    90 

77 

4.3 

July, 

.     90 

78 

3.3 

August,    . 

.     90 

78 

.6 

September, 

.    91 

76 

8.2 

October,  . 

.    87 

75 

4.8 

November, 

.    85 

68 

9.9 

December, 

.    86 

75 

6.7 

Total  for  the  Year, 

.        • 

•                  ■ 

47.2  inches. 

The  average  mearx  temperature  for  the  year  1848,  was  79*^ 
Fahrenheit. 

"  The  climate  of  this  pait  of  the  American  continent  (border- 
ing on  the  Bay  of  Honduras),  is  greatly  superior  that  of 
most  other  parts  of  the  same  vast  portion  of  the  g-')be,  either 
in  higher  or  lower  degrees  of  latitude.  It  is  equally  superior 
to  the  climate  of  the  West  India  Islands  generally,  for  persons, 
whoso  health  and  constitutions  have  become  impaired  from  the 
effects  of  the  latter,  very  frequently  acquire  a  sudden  restora- 
tion of  bor.i  after  an  arrival  in  Hondiiras.  With  the  exception 
of  a  few  months  of  the  year,  this  country  is  constantly  refreshed 
by  regular  sea-breezes,  accompanied  by  an  average  heat  that 
may  be  taken  at  the  temperature  ot  80^  Fahrenheit. — Hender- 
son s  Honduras. 

The  principal  productions  of  Central  America  are  coffee, 
indigo,  cochineal,  Brazil  wood,  mahogany,  dye-woodfi  sarsa- 
parilla,  India  rubber,  balsam  of  Peru,  hides,  tallow,  wool,  tor- 
toise-shell, gold  and  silver.    Below  the  elevation  of  3,000  feet, 


rr 


,  :l 


CENTRAL  AMEIIICA. 


249 


indigo,  cotton,  sugar  and  cacao  are  the  chief  cro]-)S  ;  between 
3,000  and  6,000  feet,  the  cochineal  plant  is  abundantly  culti- 
vated. Maize  is  generally  raised,  but  wheat  only  on  the  high 
table-land  in  the  north.  In  some  parts  the  chicozapote,  a 
fniit  yielding  a  good  deal  of  nourishment,  supplies  the  place 
of  corn  ;  other  products  are  tobacco,  dragon's  blood,  mastic, 
various  balsams  and  drugs,  tamarinds,  pepper,  cassia,  ginger, 
vanilla,  and  ail  the  fruits  of  a  tropical  region.  The  country  is 
very  productive  of  the  precious  metals,  abounding  in  gold,  sil- 
ver, copper,  iron,  lead  and  zinc. 

Horses,  asses,  goats,  sheep,  hogs,  having  licen  introduced  by 
the  Spaniards,  are  now  very  numerous  ;  vast  herds  of  cattle 
are  pastured  in  the  grazing  farms  of  Nicaragua,  and  large  flocks 
of  sheep  on  the  plateau  of  Quesaltcnango,  being  reared  almost 
wholly  for  their  wool.  Cattle  and  sheep  breeding  are,  "with 
agi'iculture,  the  main  occupation  of  the  population  ;  but  the 
productions  of  coarse  woolens,  cottons,  blankets,  caps,  hats, 
earthenware,  furniture,  cabinet-work,  employs  a  good  many 
hands,  and  the  Indians  weave  mats  of  different  colors,  which 
are  used  as  carpets. 

The  vegetable  productions  of  the  country,  oviTng  to  difference 
of  altitude,  are  represented  as  more  varied  than  almost  any 
other  part  of  the  world ;  and,  if  ir  +he  possession  of  an  indus- 
trious and  enterprising  people,  ii  Avoald  not  fail  to  be  one  of 
the  richest  on  the  globe.  Cotton  of  a  superior  quality  can 
be  raised  in  Nicaragua,  but  like  all  other  articles  produced  in 
this  State,  the  cultivation  is  Jiov/  at  a  very  low  ebb,  and  aluicrt 
entirely  neglected.  Sugar  also  is  susceptible  of  prvjfitablo  cul- 
tivation iu  many  parts  of  Central  America. 

Taking  the  natural  divisions  of  the  continent  alone  into  con- 
sideration. Central  America  may  be  regarded  as  lying  between 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  Darien  and  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuan- 
tepec,  and  consequently  in  a  tropical  climate.  This  narrow, 
tortuous  strip  of  land,  which  unites  the  continents  of  North  and 
South  America,  stretches  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.  about  1,200  miles, 
varying  in  breadth  from  25  to  300  or  400  miles,  thus  includi?ig 
a  portion  of  Mexico  and  New  Granada. 

"  As  a  regular  chain,  the  Andes  descend  suddenly  at  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  but  as  a  ma  s  of  high  land  they  continue 
through  Central  America  and  Mexico,  in  an  irregular  mixture 
of  table-lands  and  mountains.  The  mass  of  high  lands  which 
forms  the  central  ridge  of  the  country,  and  the  Avatershcd 
between  the  two  oceans,  is  very  steep  on  its  western  side,  and 
runs  near  the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  where  Central  Americ;i 
is  narrow ;  but  to  the  north,  where  it  becomes  wider,  the 
high  land  recedes  to  a  gi'cater  distance  from  the  shore  than 


!i 


I   ! 


250 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


the  Andes  do  in  any  other  part  between  Cape  Horn  and 
Mexico. 

"  This  country  consists  of  three  distinct  groups,  divided  by 
valleys  which  run  from  sea  to  sea,  namely  :  Costa  Rica,  the 
group  of  Honduras  and  Nicaragua,  and  the  group  of  Guate- 
mala. 

"  The  plains  of  Panama,  very  little  raised  above  the  sea,  and 
in  some  parts  studded  with  hills,  follow  the  direction  of  the 
isthmus  for  280  miles,  and  end  at  the  Bay  of  Parita.  From 
thence  the  forest-covered  Cordillera  of  Paraguay,  supposed  to 
be  9,000  feet  high,  extends  to  a  small  but  elevated  table-land 
of  Costa  Rica,  surrounded  by  volcanoes,  and  terminates  at  the 
plain  of  Nicaragua,  which,  together  with  its  lake,  occupies  an 
area  of  30,000  square  miles,  and  forms  the  second  break  in  the 
gi'eat  Andean  cbain.  The  lake  is  only  128  feet  above  the 
Pacific,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  line  of  active  volcanoes. 
The  River  San  Juan  de  Nicaragua  news  from  its  eastern  end 
into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  at  its  northern  extremity  it  is 
cormected  with  the  smaller  lake  of  Managua  or  Leon  by  the 
river  Penaloya.  By  this  water-line  it  has  been  projected  to 
unite  the  two  seas.  The  high  land  begins  again,  after  an 
interval  of  170  miles,  with  the  Mosquito  country  and  Hon- 
duras, which  mostly  consist  of  table-lands  and  high  mountains, 
some  of  which  are  volcanoes. 

"  Guatemala  is  a  table-land  intersected  by  deep  valleys, 
which  hes  betv-een  the  plain  of  Comayagua  and  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec.  It  spreads  to  the  ear,t  in  the  peninsula  of  Yuca- 
tan, which  terminatts  at  Cape  Catoche,  and  encomi)asses  the 
Bay  of  Honduras  with  terraces  of  high  mountams.  The  table- 
land of  Guatemala  consist  of  undulating,  verdant  plains  of 
gi'eat  extent,  of  the  absolute  height  of  5,000  feet,  fi-agrant  with 
flowers.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  table-land,  the  cities  of 
Old  and  New  Guatemala  are  situated  tv/elve  miles  apart.  The 
portion  of  the  plain,  on  which  the  new  cit}^  stands,  is  bounded 
on  ihe  west  by  the  three  volcanoes  of  Pacayo,  del  Fuego  and 
de  Agua  ;  these,  rising  from  7,000  to  10,000  feet  above  the 
plain,  lie  close  to  the  now  city  on  the  west,  and  form  a  scene  of 
wonderful  boldness  and  beauty.  The  Volcano  de  Agiui,  at  the 
foot  of  v/hicli  Old  Guatemala  stands,  is  a  perfect  cone,  verdant 
to  its  summit,  vdiich  occasionally  pours  forth  torrents  of  boiling 
water  and  stones.  The  old  city  has  been  twice  destroyed  by 
it,  and  is  now  nearly  deserted  on  account  of  earthquakes. 

"  Though  there  are  large  savannahs  on  tlio  plains  of  Guate- 
mala, therr  ive  also  magnificent  primcv:  forests,  as  the  name 
of  the  country  implies,  Guatemala  signifying,  in  tlie  Mexican 
language,  '  a  place  covered  with  trees. 


ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA — RAIN  AT  ASPINWALL. 


251 


"  As  the  climate  is  cool  in  the  elevated  plains  and  highlands, 
the  vegetation  of  the  temperate  zone  is  there  in  perfection. 
On  the  lowlands,  us  in  other  countries  where  heat  and  moisture 
are  in  excess,  and  where  nature  is  for  the  most  part  undis- 
turbed, vegetation  is  vigorous  to  rankness  ;  forests  of  gigantic 
timber  seek  the  foid  aii*  above  an  impenetrable  undergrowth, 
and  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  are  dense  masses  of  jungle  with 
mangroves  and  reeds  100  feet  high,  yet  delightful  savannahs 
vary  the  scene,  and  wooded  mountains  dip  into  the  water." — 
3Irs.  Somerville. 

Isthmus  of  P.vnama. — "  The  majority  of  the  natives  of  Panama 
and  its  vicinity  are  a  mongrel  race,  in  whoso  veins,  white, 
Indian  and  negro  blood  is  mingled  in  every  conceivable  pro- 
portion. Yet  those  are  every  way  superior  in  physical  develop- 
ment to  the  few  who  boast  an  unmixed  Castihan  descent.  It 
is  fearfully  probable  that  no  race  of  whites  can  escape  deteriora- 
tion upon  the  Isthmus.  The  indomitable  energy  which  braves 
everv  hardship,  and  overcomes  every  visible  obstacle,  yields  to 
the  fatal  iulluence  of  climate,  and  each  generation  sinks  lower 
than  the  one  that  preceded  it. 

"  The  pestilential  climate,  with  which  no  race  of  men  and  no 
strength  of  constitution  can  contend,  and  against  which  no 
measure  of  precaution  and  no  process  of  acclimation  is  a  safe- 
guard, is  of  the  most  fatal  character.  At  certain  seasons  no 
man  can  expect  to  escape  the  terrible  '  Panama  fever '  for  more 
than  a  few  weeks  or  months  at  most." 


memoeandum  of  fat.t. 

OF  KAIN  AT 

ASPIN^'ALL, 

NEW  GlLVN.y)A. 

Months. 

1800. 

1861. 

18G2. 

lucbes. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

January, 

3.91 

5.42 

February, 

2.31 

1.94 

March,    . 

2.88 

.70 

April, 

3.01 

2.51 

May, 

.    8.30 

19.01 

4.27 

June, 

12.28 

July, 

13.82 

August,  . 

.    8.70 

U.99 

September, 

.  11.37 

9.62 

15.51 

October, 

.  20.83 

7.10 

13.10 

November, 

.  19.88 

26.80 

— 

December, 

.  12.08 

•                • 

18.08 

■ii 

Total, 

.    134.41 

252 


INTLUENCE   OP  CLIMATE. 


The  mean  annual  temperature  surrounding  Central  A.merica, 
along  the  sea-coast,  varies  from  75°  to  80°  Fahr. ;  while  on  the 
table-lands  and  elevated  localities  it  varies  from  G0°  to  70°, 
thus  producing  all  the  tropical  productions  with  many  of  the 
temperate  zone. 

Yellow  Fever  aud  Rainy  Weather. 

A  letter  fi'om  Belize,  Honduras,  of  a  late  date,  speaking  of 
the  ravages  of  the  YeUow  Fever  on  that  coast,  says  : 

"  Our  old,  acclimated  population  and  the  colored  people  have 
generally  escaped,  but  it  has  made  fearful  havoc  on  those  who 
had  been  only  a  short  tinae  here.  We  have  had  nothing  like  it 
for  over  sixteen  years,  and,  in  fact,  there  is  no  one  who  can 
remember  such  a  sickly  season  before.  The  doctors  themselves 
say  that  its  fatality  is  beyond  their  skill.  I  think  that  not 
more  than  two  who  have  had  it  have  recovered." 

Temperature  of  the  Air  and  the  Ocean. 
Record  of  a  Passenger  on  the  Mail  Steamsliip. 


18C5. 

Air. 

0 

Ocean. 

0 

Barometer. 

N.  Lat. 

0          / 

Panama,          Nov 

.10, 

.    87 

86 

30.22 

8  56 

(( 

11, 

.    .     78 

80 

30.25 

Off  Costa  Kica,  " 

12, 

.    .    82 

82 

30.30 

9  55 

(( 

13, 

.    82 

82 

30.27 

12  18 

Off  Guatemala,  ** 

14, 

.    82 

82 

30.32 

15    6 

(( 

15, 

.     .    82 

82 

30.24 

15  42 

Acapulco,           " 

16, 

.    84 

82 

30.30 

10  50 

(( 

17, 

.    82 

82 

30.24 

18  29 

(( 

18, 

.    81 

82 

30.32 

20  04 

Cape  St.  Lucas,  " 

10, 

.    76 

77 

30.38 

22  28 

<( 

20, 

.     75 

76 

30.47 

25  12 

(( 

21, 

.    64 

Gij 

30.44 

28  28 

San  Diego,  Cal.,  " 

22, 

.     .    64 

64 

30.38 

31  41 

Los  Angeles,       " 

23, 

.     58 

59 

30.41 

34  25 

San  Francisco,  " 

24, 

.    54 

55 

30.60 

37  46 

Variation,    .     . 

•         • 

.    30 

31 

00.38 

28  90 

Tue  above  *•!  ows  a  close  affinity  between  the  air  and  the 
ocean.  It  is  supposed  a  current  from  the  North  reduces  the 
temperature  of  the  ocean  at  Cahfornia. 

The  lofty  moimtams  of  Central  America,  of  Mexico,  and  of 
Lower  California  were  in  Fight  nearly  all  the  way. — Journal  of 
Commerce,  March  24,  1866. 


MEAN  TEMTEILVTURE  IN  TROPICAL  AMERICA. 


253 


Mean  Temperature  in  Tropical  America. 


n 


55 

18 
6 
42 
50 
B  29 
04 
28 
12 
28 
41 
25 
4(3 


Cities,  etc. 

Mexico  (Alt.  7,500  feet),       . 
Vera  Cruz,   .         .         .         . 
Jalapa  (4,000  feet), 
Acapulco,     .         .         .         . 
Belize,  .         .         .         . 

Guatemala  (4,000  feet), 
Eivas,  Nicaragua, 
Havana,  Cuba, 
Matauzas,  "         .         .         . 
Sau  Domiugo,  Hayti,  . 
Kingston,  Jamaica, 
Panama,  N.  G.,    , 
Bogota  (8,650  feet),      . 
Caracas,  Ven.,  (2,880  feet),  . 
George  Town,  Bi\  Guiana,  . 
Para,  Brazil, 
Maranham,  Brazil, 
Pernambuco,    " 
Baliia.  "  .         . 

Eio  Janeiro,     *' 
Quito,  Ecuador  (9,543  feet) . 
Guayaquil  "  .         .         . 

Truxillo,  Peru 
Lima,  "         .        .        . 


Population.     N.  Lat.      W,  Long. 


250,000 
20,000 
10,000 
5,000 
10,000 
40,000 
20,000 

150,000 
28,000 
15,000 
35,000 
6,000 
40,000 
60,000 
25,000 
10,000 
30,000 
30,000 

100,000 

300,000 
80,000 
20,000 
10,000 

100,000 


19  26 
19  12 
19  30 

16  50 

17  29 
14  36 

11  00 
23  09 
23  02 

18  28 
17  58 

8  56 

4  35 

10  30 

6  49 

1  28  S. 

2  31 " 
8  06  " 

13  00  " 

22  54  " 

0  13" 

2  20" 

8  30  " 

12  02  " 


99  00 

96  08 

97  00 
99  49 
88  10 
90  30 

82  22 
81  38 
69  50 

76  47 
79  31 
74  10 
67  00 
58  11 
48  30 
44  18 
34  51 
38  31 
43  09 

78  50 

79  43 
79  09 

77  06 


Year. 
°  Ffthr. 

60.50 
77.00 
70.00 
78.00 
79.00 
65.00 
78.00 
76.00 
78.30 
78.00 
78.70 
80.00 
58.00 
72.00 
81.00 
82.00 

8;.oo 

80.00 
79.00 
74.00 
70.00 
82.00 
80.00 
76.00 


Climate  of  Caracas,  South  America. 

Caracas,  or  Caraccas,  A^enezuela,  situated  in  N.  lat  10°30', 
W.  long.  67^,  being  twelve  miles  inland  from  its  port.  La 
Guayra,  and  elevated  nearly  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of  tlio 
Caribbean  Sea,  is  freed,  in  consequence  of  its  elcTatiou,  from 
the  excessive  heats  of  the  tropical  regions.  Though  delight- 
fully cool  in  the  mornings  and  evenings,  the  heat  of  noon  is 
very  great.  Bain  is  abundant  during  Ai)ril,  May  and  June. 
The  climate  of  Caracas  has  been  called  a  perpetual  spring. 
"  What,  indeed,"  says  Humboldt,  "  can  we  imagine  more  de- 
lightful tlian  a  temperature  whieli,  during  the  day,  keeps  between 
lO"^  and  28^  Keaumur ;  and  at  night,  between  12-"  and  14°; 
and  which  is  equally  favorable  for  tin;  ciiltivation  of  the  phui- 
tain,  the  orange  tree,  the  coftee  plant,  the  apricot,  the  ap[)le 
and  com  ?  It  is  to  be  regetted,  however,  that  this  climate  is 
generally  unconstant  and  variable.  The  inhabitants  complain 
of  having  several  seasons  in  the  course  of  the  same  day,  and 
of  the  rapid  transition  fi'om  one  season  to  another." 


iff 


%: 


PART    XIII. 


ANTILLES,  OR  WEST  LNDIA  ISLANDS. 


[.:! 


This  extensive  and  important  group  of  Islands  in  the  Atlantic 
extends  in  a  semi-circular  form  between  tlio  two  continents  of 
America,  and  constitutes  a  sort  of  barrier  to  the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  Gulf  of  Mexico.  These  islands  describe  nearly  the  diago- 
nal of  a  parallelogram,  of  which  the  sides  are  the  meridians  of 
59°  and  86=^  W.  longitude,  and  the  parallels  of  10^  and  23°  N. 
latitude  ;  but  this  diagonal  is  of  very  variable  breadth  ;  and 
there  are  several  small  islands  off  the  neighboring  coasts  not 
included  in  the  limits  now  traced.  "  These  islands,"  says 
Malte  Brun,  "  have  been  vaguely  denominated  the  West  In- 
dies, from  the  term  India,  originally  given  to  America  by 
Columbus." 

They  are  divided  into  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Antilles  ; 
and  have  been  nautically  classified  by  the  British  under  the 
general  denominations  of  the  Windward  and  Leeward  Isl.\.nds. 
With  reference  to  the  trade-Avmd,  however,  the  whole  group 
are  windward  islands.  The  gi-eater  Antilles,  consisting  of  the 
four  large  islands  of  Cuba,  Jamaica,  St.  Domingo  or  Hayti,  and 
Porto  Rico,  stretch  from  near  the  coast  of  Florida  on  the  Avest, 
towards  the  lesser  Antilles  or  Caribbee  Islands  on  the  east, 
with  which  they  are  connected  by  the  Virgin  group.  The  total 
number  of  islands  and  islets  which  compose  these  groups  is 
upAvards  of  eight  hundred  ;  but  many  of  them  are  bare,  unin- 
habitable rocks.  AVith  the  exception  of  St.  Domingo — which  ia 
an  independent  government — these  islands  mostly  belong  to 
different  European  powers. 

The  Greater  Antilles  appear  to  be  of  primitive  formation, 
and  their  highest  summits  are  granite.  Most  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  have  indications  of  volcanic  origin ;  but  in  many  of 


CLIMATE — HEALTH,   WINDS,   ETC. 


255 


them  tlio  volcanic  rocks  arc  covered  ■with  calcareoiis  formations 
of  a  thickness  varying  from  25  to  1,000  feet. 

Climate— Health,  Winds,  etc. 

"  The  north  wind  blows  here  from  November  to  February, 
and  sometimes  lowers  the  mercury  of  the  thermometer  to  16^^ 
of  Reaumur,  or  69^  of  Fahrenheit,  and  the  needle  of  the  hygro- 
meter to  between  60^  or  70^.  Its  prevalence  is  marked  by 
epidemic  rheumatism  and  catarrhic  aft'ections.  Tlie  south  v/ind 
is  warm  and  humid  ;  it  blows  from  July  to  Octobci',  but  with 
less  force  and  continuity  than  that  of  the  N.  and  E.  It  raises 
the  thermometer  to  28^  of  lieaumur,  and  95^  of  Fahrenheit. 
Its  influence  is  dangerous  and  malignant.  To  it  is  attributable 
the  exhalation  from  the  marshes  of  Saint  Lucia,  and  tht  eleva- 
tion of  the  waters  of  the  Orinoco,  which  rise  to  the  height  of 
39  or  41  feet,  and  inundate  the  (Country  200  leagues  E.  to  "W. 
The  hurricane  season  is  reckoned  from  the  loth  of  July  to  the 
15th  of  October  ;  and  the  hurricane  region  is  included  between 
the  parallels  of  10^  and  28^  N.,  and  the  meridians  of  58^  and 
8G^  W.  The  east  wind  prevails  in  March,  April,  May  and  June. 
It  resembles  the  north,  to  which  quarter  it  generally  more  or 
less  inclines,  but  is  not  so  dry  or  warm,  for  in  traversing  the 
Atlantic?  it  loses,  before  reaching  the  Antilles,  a  part  of  the 
heat  it  acquired  in  passing  over  the  African  deserts.  During 
its  continuance,  the  climate  is  favorable  to  Creoles  and  Euro- 
peans. The  west  wind  is  the  severest  of  all,  and  inclines  more 
to  the  north  than  to  the  south.  The  seasons,  however,  alter 
with  the  Avuids,  and  are  strictly  coniinable  to  two — the  wet  sea- 
son, from  November  to  April,  passing  from  S.  to  E. — the  dry 
from  May  to  October,  passing  from  E.  to  S.  Spring  com- 
mences in  April ;  and  from  May  till  October  is  the  reign  of 
summer,  during  which  the  medium  height  of  the  thermometer 
is  about  SO'^.  The  autumnal  rains  commence  in  October,  and 
continue  till  the  middle  of  December  ;  from  60  to  05  cubic 
inches  are  the  medium  fall.  This  humidity  M.  de  Jonnes  attri- 
butes, 1st.  to  the  situtttion  of  the  islands  in  the  midst  of  a  vast 
body  of  water,  the  daily  evaporation  from  which  amounts  to 
more  than  33,000,000  tons  of  water  for  a  degree  square  ;  2d.  to 
the  prox:mity  of  the  ditlerent  islands  of  the  arcliipelago  which 
form  a  chain  of  200  leagues,  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  right 
angle,  the  direction  of  which  is  towards  the  prevailing  winds  ; 
3d.  to  the  mineralogical  mass  of  these  islands,  which  exercises 
a  superior  influence  on  the  atmosphere  to  such  insiilated  soli- 
tary islands  as  Samt  Helen{\,  Ascension,  or  the  Isle  of  Paquas ; 
4th.  to  the  conflict  between  opposing  currents  of  wind  during 


:f 


256 


INTLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


the  ■winter  season  ;  5t]i.  to  tlio  elevation  of  the  mountains, 
wliich  rise  300  or  400  toises  into  the  region  of  the  clouds,  which 
hang  during  the  rainy  season  at  less  than  2,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  beginning  from  the  14th  parallel ;  and  (Hh.  to 
the  conic  or  pyramidal  form  of  the  mountains,  which  sensibly 
augments  their  action  on  the  electric  clouds.  An  oflBcial  docu- 
ment on  the  health  of  the  British  troops  stationed  in  the  West 
Indies,  exhibits,  as  regard;j  British  Guayana,  Trinidad,  Tobago, 
Grenada,  St.  "Vincent's,  Barbadoes,  St.  Lucia,  Dominica,  An- 
tigua and  St.  Kitt's,  the  following  general  results  :  Tobago  is 
the  most  remarkable  for  fever  ;  l)o  .linica  for  diseases  of  the 
bowels  and  of  the  brain  ;  Barbadoes  for  those  of  the  lungs  ; 
Grenada  for  those  of  the  liver ;  while  Trinidad  is  most  noted 
for  its  dropsies.  It  may  be  observed  that  the  mortality  of  all 
the  islands,  except  Antigua,  Grenada  and  Tobago,  is  higher 
among  the  troops  than  among  the  black  pojiulatiou  ;  and  this 
is  the  more  remarkable,  as  the  mortality  of  the  negro  slave 
population  was  calculated  upon  persons  of  all  ages,  including 
old  men  and  infants,  sickly  and  healthy  ;  whereas,  that  of  the 
troojos  was  calculated  upon  persons  in  the  prime  of  life  only. 
It  appears  that  in  these  colonics,  as  well  as  in  Jamaica,  the 
most  sickly  as  well  as  the  most  fatal  period  of  the  year  extends 
from  August  to  December,  and  that  the  only  months  compara- 
tively healthy  are  March,  April  and  May. 

"  Vegetation. — The  atmosphere  of  the  Antilles  resembles 
that  of  Africa  more  than  that  of  Europe.  Hence,  while  Euro- 
pean productions  degenerate  In  cc,  those  of  Africa  attain  sin- 
gular luxuriance.  The  sugar-cane — Avhich  now  covers  these 
islands — came  originally  from  one  of  the  Afi'ican  islands  ;  the 
cofl'ee,  from  i\i'abia  ;  part  of  the  alimentarv  plants,  from  the 
coast  of  Guinea  ;  and  the  finest  grapes  of  the  savannahs,  and 
ilowers  from  the  same  source.  The  dates  are  those  of  Atlas  ; 
and  fi'om  Senegal  were  transplanted  those  tamarinds  whose 
thick  shade  suiibcates  the  American  trees  with  Avhicli  they  are 
surrounded.  The  numerous  race  of  negi'oes,  too,  originally 
brought  from  Africa,  has  here  usurped  the  place  of  the  abo- 
rigines. '  Trees  similar  to  those  that  we  have  admired  in  other 
tropical  countries,'  says  Malte  Brun,  '  grow  in  equal  luxuriance 
on  these  islands.  A  cnnoe  made  from  a  single  tiiiuk  of  the 
Avild  cotton-tree  has  been  known  to  contain  a  hundred  persons ; 
and  the  leaf  of  a  particular  kind  of  palm-tree  affords  a  shade  to 
live  or  six  men.  The  royal  palmetto,  or  mountain  cabbage, 
grows  to  the  extraordinary  height  of  200  feet,  and  its  verdant 
summit  is  shaken  by  the  lightest  breeze.  Many  of  the  planta- 
tions are  enclosed  by  rows  of  Campeachy  and  Brazilian  trees  i 


VEGETATION— THE  SUGAR-CANE. 


257 


the  corab  is  alike  prized  for  its  tliick  shade  and  its  excolleut 
fiTiit ;  and  the  fibrous  bark  of  the  gi'cat  cecropia  is  converted 
into  strong  cordaf:je.  The  trees  most  vahiable  on  account  of 
their  timber,  are  the  tamarind,  the  cedar,  the  Spanish  moun- 
tain-ash, the  iron-tree,  and  the  Luirns  chloroxi/Ioii,  which  is  well 
adapted  for  the  constmction  of  mills.  The  dwellmgs  of  the 
settlers  are  shaded  by  orange,  lemon  and  pomcgi'anate  trees, 
which  fill  the  air  with  the  perfume  of  their  flowers,  while  their 
branches  are  loaded  with  fruit.  The  apple,  the  peach,  and  the 
gi'ape  ripen  m  the  mountains.  The  date,  the  sapata  and  sapo- 
tilla,  the  mammce,  several  Oriental  fruits,  the  rose-apple,  the 
guava,  the  munga,  and  different  species  of  spondias  and  anno- 
nas  grow  on  the  sultry  plains. 

"  The  winter  season  is  the  great  vegetating  season  in  tlie 
West  Indian  Islands.  The  sap  then  circulates  with  activity 
and  energy — the  trees  are  almo.st  at  the  same  instant  covered 
with  flowers  and  fi-uit,  mosses  and  lichens  cover  the  walls — and 
stramoniums  of  gigantic  size  and  purple  euphorbiums  spring 
up  in  the  unfrequented  paths. 

*'7V»'  Sugar-cane. — Sugar  is  the  great  staple  commodity  of  the 
West  Indies.  To  this  day,  it  is  not  exactly  known  what  coun- 
try the  sugar-cane  was  originally  imported  from  ;  but  it  is 
generally  beUeved  that  it  came  fi'om  the  East  Indies.  In  the 
12tli  or  13th  century  it  was  transplanted  into  Sicily  ;  whence  it 
was  taken  to  Madeira,  then  recently  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese. About  the  same  time  the  Spaniards  introduced  it  into 
the  Canary  Islands.  Attempts  were  made  to  plant  it  in  Pro- 
vence ;  but  they  did  not  succeed.  In  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century,  France  had  no  sugar  but  what  came  from  Madeira 
and  the  Canaries ;  but  towards  the  end  of  the  century,  tlie 
English  had  monopolized  this  article  of  trade,  and  all  the  north 
of  France  was  in  general  supplied  with  sugar  from  England. 
From  the  Canary  Islands  the  cane  was  conveyed  to  the  Ameri- 
can Continent  and  islands,  and  afterwards  to  Madagascar,  the 
coasts  of  Coromandel  and  Malabar,  Ceylon  and  Manilla,  and, 
at  length,  even  to  Otaheite.  The  sugar-cane  is  propagated  b}' 
gi'ains  or  seed.  There  are  several  varieties  of  this  plant.  One 
of  these,  which  is  white,  with  a  thin  bark,  and  knots  at  spaces 
five  fingers  in  length,  is  very  productive  both  of  juice  and  sugar. 
A  second  species  is  of  a  reddish  color  ;  its  knots  lie  nearer 


together  ;  its  bark  is  hard  ;  and  its  produce  of  sugar  less  con- 
siderable but  sweeter.  In  a  third  species,  the  stalk  is  not  above 
an  inch  thick  ;  the  bark  is  thin,  the  flutings  are  green,  the  knots 
very  distant ;  this  last  has  a  very  sweet  taste,  and  yields  a  great 
quantity  of  sugar.  All  the  three  species  ripen  in  nine  or  ten. 
months." — EmjJish  Gazetteer. 


I    ■' } 


!>. 


fifi 


m 


258 


mn^UENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


Island  of  Cuba — Ita  Climate,  etc. 


This  large  and  noble  islfind  has  its  oast  tenninus  at  Point 
Maysi,  in  74'-'8'  west  longitude  from  Greenwich,  and  its  west 
point,  Capo  San  Antonio,  in  84°59'  ;  lying  hetAvcen  three  de- 
grees E,  and  eight  degrees  W.  from  Washington.  The  extrenio 
H.  point  of  the  island  is  in  north  latitude  19^50',  and  the  ex- 
treme north  ]ioint,  2I}~9'.  It  is  of  an  elongated  narrow  shape, 
being  G48  miles  in  length  from  east  to  west,  and  from  20  to  127 
in  breadth  from  south  to  north  ;  containing  an  estimated  area  of 
35,750  square  geographical  miles,  including  several  small  islands 
attached  to  it  and  under  the  same  government.  The  coast  lino 
exceeds  2,000  miles  in  extent ;  but  such  is  the  prevalence  of 
reefs,  rocks  and  sand-banks  in  the  surrounding  waters,  that 
little  more  than  one-thiril  of  this  coast  line  can  be  considered 
accessible  to  mercantile  vessels.  Tlioro  are,  however,  about 
fifty  ports  and  anchorages.  "  Commanding  the  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  possessing  one  of  the  noblest  harbors  in 
the  world,  Cuba  crowns  by  her  pohtical  importance  the  com- 
manding advantages  of  a  rich  soil,  a  varied  and  teeming  pro- 
ductiveness, and  a  climate  which  enjoys  the  genial  warmth,  but 
escapes  the  fiercer  heats  of  the  tropics.  The  occupation  of 
such  an  island  must  give  strength  and  wealth  to  any  nation." 

"  The  climate,  although  tropical,  is  marked  by  an  unequal 
distribution  of  heat  at  diflennt  periods  of  the  year,  indicating 
a  transition  to  the  climates  of  the  temperate  zone.  When  the 
north  wind  blows  several  weeks,  ice  is  sometimes  formed  at 
night,  at  a  little  distance  from  the  coast,  and  at  an  inconsider- 
able elevation  above  the  sea.  Yet  tJio  groat  lowerings  of  tem- 
perature which  occasionally  take  place  are  of  so  short  duration, 
that  the  palm-tree,  banana  and  sugar-cane  do  not  suffer  fi*om 
them.  Snow  never  falls,  even  on  the  Sierra-del-Cobre,  and  hail 
so  rarely  that  it  is  only  observed  during  thunder  storms,  once 
in  several  years. 

"  The  average  annual  temperature  of  Havana  is  25"'  centi- 
grade (76^  Fahrenheit) ;  the  highest,  32'^  (SO.G'-") ;  and  the  low- 
est, 10^  (50^  Fahr.)  The  average  temperature  of  the  warmest 
month  was  27^  (82.6°),  and  of  the  coldest  21"  (69.8°).  The 
average  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  as  shown  by  the  hair 
hygrometer  is  85^  ;  the  maximum,  in  Noveniber  and  December, 
l)eing  100°,  and  the  minimum,  in  April,  66° ;  or  97°  and  75  ^ 
without  the  extremes. 

"  The  dew  falls  very  copiously,  especially  during  the  dry  sea- 
son, but  chiefly  in  December  and  January.  Fogs  also  occur  prin- 
cipally in  the  season  of  drought.  Tlie  rain  has  so  fixed  and  defi- 
nite a  period  as  to  determine  the  seasons,  which  are  divided 


If 


AORICULTUIUL  PRODUCTS  OF  CUBA. 


259 


into  two,  viz, :  the  rainy  seaaon,  and  the  drf/  sccifion,  or  season  of 
'  northers.''  The  first  eonnnoncos  hctwcen  May  and  June,  and 
ends  in  November,  beinj;  most  active  in  Heptmnber  and  Octo- 
ber. The  average  fall  of  rain  at  Havana  is  1,02!)  millimetrca  ; 
tlie  most  recorded  for  a  year  is  50  inches  (5  hnes,  and  the  least, 
82  inches  7  lines.  The  most  for  a  month  (August),  11  inches, 
and  the  least  (November  and  Deccuuber),  2  lines." 

In  the  interior  of  the  island  much  more  rain  falls  than  at 
Havana  or  on  the  sea-board. 

"  The  common  cereal  grasses  are  cultivated  in  Cuba,  together 
with  all  the  productions  of  tropical  climates.  The  hills  and 
savannahs  are  decorated  with  ditlVreut  species  of  palms,  and 
the  wild  orange  tree  attains  a  height  of  from  ten  to  lifteen  feet. 
The  mountains,  in  many  parts,  jjresent  a  naked  appearance  ; 
but  the  sweet  pea,  the  myrtle-leafed  vine  and  the  night-bloom- 
ing cereus  clothe  their  crags  in  some  quarters.  Immense  dis- 
tricts, especially  the  hilly  and  mountain  regions,  are  still  cov- 
ered Avith  trees,  among  which  the  magnificent  olive  and  gigantic 
mahogany  tree,  with  the  red  cedar,  ebony,  li(jniuti  v!{<r,  and  a 
variety  of  otlier  valuable  woods  for  furniture  and  ship  building 
abound.  Many  A'arieties  of  palms,  plantains,  and  some  beauti- 
ful hard-woods  occur.  Maize,  manioc,  cocoa,  and  the  yaca  are 
grown  in  Cuba,  and  numerous  escident  roots  and  fruit  are  indi- 
genous ;  among  the  latter,  the  delicious  pine-apple.  Precious 
woods,  tauilding  timber,  plants  for  other  useful  purposes,  medi- 
cinal plants,  and  a  great  variety  of  fi'uits  abounds  in  diii'erent 
parts  of  this  rich  and  fertile  island." 

The  chief  agricultural  products  arc  sugar,  molasses,  tobacco, 
coffee,  Indian  corn,  garden  fi'uits,  esculent  vegetables,  honey, 
wax,  etc.  The  products  of  the  forest  are  cedar,  mahogany,  etc., 
all  of  which  articles  are  annually  exported  to  a  very  large 
amount. 

AGRICULTURAL  rHODUCTS  OF   CUBA. 

Sugar-cane. — The  cane  is  a  tropical  plant,  and  although  it  is 
cultivated  in  the  Southern  States  of  America,  it  does  not  flower  in 
that  climate,  and  it  is  also  cultivated  under  other  disadvantages. 

"  There  are  two  pov;erful  influences  under  which  the  life  of 
sugar-cane  appears  to  be  shortened,  viz. :  a  low  temperature  in 
winter  and  poverty  of  soil.  The  cane,  as  it  is  well  known,  is  a 
perennial  plant,  and  when  its  stalks  are  cut  close  to  the  ground 
every  year,  the  roots,  like  those  of  the  willow,  retain  their 
vitalit}^,  and  send  up  fresh  shoots  for  another  season.  On  some 
of  the  richest  soils  in  Cuba,  it  has  frequently  been  known  to 
last  for  twenty-five  years  ;  and  it  is  said  that  there  are  instances 
on  record  of  its  lasting  forty  years  Avithout  beuig  renewed. 


! 


if 


260 


INTLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


But  after  the  soil  liecomcs  Homewhat  oxluiusted,  it  is  planted 
every  five  or  eight  years,  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  land. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  influence  the  cold  winters  exercise  on 
the  longe\'ity  of  the  cane  is  rather  eiuious.  The  soil  in  the 
lower  delta  of  the  Mississippi  is,  perhaps,  as  firtilo  as  any  of 
the  soils  in  Cuba  ;  yet  there  the  canes  are  seldom  got  from  the 
rattoons,  or  old  root^ ,  oftener  than  once,  when  the  fields  have 
again  to  bo  replanted.  The  life  of  the  cane  is  thus  evidently 
shortened  by  the  cold  winter.  As  we  go  further  north,  such  as 
central  parts  of  Alabama,  where  the  winters  are  still  colder,  it 
is  found  necessary  to  plant  sugar-cane  annually.  The  effects 
of  a  rich  soil  in  prolonging  the  life  and  vigor  of  the  cane  are 
well  known  in  Louisiana,  for  an  additional  year's  gi'owth  from 
the  rattoons  is  obtained  from  crops  planted  on  new  land.  But 
in  general,  but  two  crops  only  are  got  from  one  planting  on  the 
best  sugar  lands  of  Louisiana.  From  this  circumstance  alone, 
it  may  readily  be  conceived  that  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar- 
cane is  much  more  expensive  in  Louisiana  than  in  Cuba.  And 
although  the  produce  of  the  sugar  in  the  former  is  little  more 
than  one  half  of  that  of  the  latter,  yet  strange  to  say,  the  sugar- 
lands  of  the  Mississippi  are  of  far  greater  value  than  some  of 
the  best  lauds  of  Cuba.  The  reason  wh^  the  value  of  land  is 
higher  in  America,  notwithstanding  the  disadvantage  of  climate, 
is  owing  principall}'  to  the  circumstance  of  more  economical 
management,"  and,  also  might  be  added,  the  different  forms  of 
government  of  the  two  countries. 

The  quantity  of  sugar  and  molasses  produced  on  the  Island 
of  Cuba  in  1852,  was  as  follows  : 

Sdoar.  Molasses. 

Arrobiis.  Puncheons. 

Western  Department,     .     .    25,397,7()7  258,204 

Eastern  Department,      .     .      3,767,469  8,981 

Total, 29,165,236  267,185 

This  is  the  great  source  of  wealth  of  the  island  of  Cuba.  An 
acre  of  average  sugar-cane  in  Cuba  will  yield  about  3,500 
pounds  of  syrup,  that  is,  sugar  and  molasses.  This  is  a  very 
large  quantity  of  saccharine  matter,  when  it  is  borne  in  mind 
that  it  is  estimated  there  is  25  per  cent,  of  the  whole  amount  of 
sugar  left  in  the  "  begasse,"  or  stalks,  after  being  pressed. 
This  is  a  greater  weight  of  pure  saccharine  matter  than  the 
weight  of  the  grain  of  two  of  the  largest  crops  of  Indian  corn 
in  Cuba  ;  while  Indian  corn  requires  a  richer  soil  than  sugar- 
cane. 

Tobacco. — "  The  culture  of  tobacco  forms  the  other  great 
source  of  agiicultural  wealth  to  the  island  of  Cuba.    The  qual- 


TOBACCO—  COFFEE — RICE — INDIAN  CORN. 


261 


An 

,500 

very 

luind 

lit  of 

ssed. 

the 
corn 
igar- 


ity  of  the  fine  Havana  tobacco  is  the  result  of  peculiarities  of 
soil  and  climate.  In  regard  to  climate,  it  is  worthy  of  ohserva- 
tion  that  tobacco  is  only  cultivated  durin/j  u-'inicr,  when  there  is 
little  rain.  It  grows  more  luxuriantly  in  summer  with  the 
increased  heat  and  moisture  ;  but  the  leaves  grown  in  this  sea- 
son are  devoid  of  those  qualities  for  which  the  v.oed  is  esteemed. 
The  conditions  of  growth  are  less  powerful  in  winter,  when  the 
temperature  is  ten  degrees  lower,  and  the  fall  of  rain  small. 
At  tlie  same  time,  there  is  more  sunshine  to  impart  those  aro- 
matic qualities  Avhich  are  so  much  rehshed  by  smokers  of 
tocacco. 

"  But  the  quality  of  the  tobacco  depends  as  much  upon  the 
nature  of  the  soil  as  of  the  climate.  That  plant,  as  we  have 
already  said,  requires  pecuharities  of  soil  to  develop  certain 
of  its  qualities,  and  these  peculiarities  are  pucIi  that  art  cannot 
furnish  the  conditions  to  produce  them  whore  they  are  naturally 
wanting.  The  sugar-cane  grows  chiefly  on  soils  derived  from 
calcareous  formations  ;  but  few  or  none  of  these  are  fitted  for 
tobacco,  which  is  cultivated  only  on  sandy  loams.  Both  the 
Cuban  and  American  planters  concur  in  asscrtiug  that  a 
large  quantity  of  silicious  matters  in  soils  is  essential  for  the 
growth  of  good  tobacco.  The  culture  of  tobacco  is  extensively 
carried  on  in  the  western  parts  of  the  island,  over  a  region  of 
of  country  along  the  south  coast,  about  eighty  miles  in  length 
by  twenty  in  breatlth.  The  soils  rest  ui^on  the  primary  forma- 
tion. Even  in  the  tobacco  district,  the  planters  Know  the  spots 
in  the  different  fields  that  produce  the  various  qualities  of 
leal.  The  Avliole  yield  of  tobacco  on  the  island  of  Cuba  in 
1852,  was  222,020  cargas." 

Coffee. — The  vermilion  soils  are  most  esteemed  for  the 
growth  of  the  coffee  plant.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  six  feet, 
and  looks  like  a  hardy,  slow-growing  shrub.  It  is  an  evergreen, 
and  is  kept  closely  pruned.  When  iii  blossom,  the  fields  ap- 
pear quite  white.  The  labor  of  the  coffee  estates  is  light  com- 
pared with  what  it  is  on  the  sugar  estates.  Coffee  was  form- 
erly more  extensively  cultivated  in  Cuba  than  it  is  now ;  a 
number  of  coffee  estates  have  been  planted  with  sugar-cane, 
which  is  found  to  be  more  profitable. 

Rkc. — Considerable  quantities  of  rice  are  sown  in  summer  on 
the  ordinary  soils  of  the  country  ;  and  the  crops  receive  no 
more  moisture  than  what  the  rains  afford,  but  they  sometimes 
suffer  greatly  when  the  season  is  dry.  The  Chinese  laborers 
have  an  allowance  of  rice  ;  for,  having  been  accustomed  to  it 
in  their  native  country,  they  still  retain  a  preference  for  it  over 
Indian  corn. 

Indian  Corn. — '•  Two  crops  of  Indian  com  are  raised  on  the 


il 


ir^0^: 


262 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


m 


samo  land  in  one  year,  THe  winter,  or  '  diy  crop,'  as  it  m 
called,  is  iisnally  sown  in  October,  and  roa})ed  in  jFcbrnary  ; 
and,  as  scarcely  any  rain  falls  dnring  this  season,  its  growth  is 
nhnost  entirely  maintained  by  copious  dews.  The  crop  at  this 
season  yields  only  about  thirty  l)ushels  an  acre  on  the  richest 
land,  as  it  rcupiircs  to  be  planted  wide  in  the  roAvs  ;  and  at  the 
same  time,  the  soil  must  ho  well  cultivated,  to  promote  the 
absorption  of  moisture.  The  summer,  or  '  rain  croj),'  is  more 
abundant  than  the  wint'^r  one  ;  but,  from  all  I  could  gather, 
Indian  corn  is  not  nearly  so  productive  in  Cuba  as  it  is  in  Ken- 
tucky or  Ohio.  On  the  best  soils,  it  stildom  produces  more 
than  fort}'  bushels  t )  the  acre  ;  for  the  climate,  as  in  the  South- 
ern States  of  America,  has  a  great  tendency  to  produce  sten:s 
and  leaves." 

Vci/cfabk'.'i. — The  -.inte-*  climate  is  well  adapted  for  all  kinds 
of  vegetables  ;  the  common  jxitato  grows  most  luxuriantly  in 
the  vicinity  of  Havana  ;  the  sweet  potato  is  also  extensively'" 
cultivated  as  a  winter  crop.  Vegetation  in  the  island  is  very 
rapid.  }3eans  are  ready  for  use  in  aljout  six  Avecks  after  ])eing 
sown,  liadishes  are  lit  for  the  table  in  the  course  of  three 
'veeks.  Lettuce,  a  plant  of  rapid  growth,  attains  a  grc^at  size 
in  a  short  period.  Tomatoes  are  also  raised  during  winter- 
In  s miner,  rain  fTcquentlv  falls  about  noon;  and  under  a 
tropical  sun  vegetation  in  consecpience  becomes  very  active. 
Neither  tomatoes,  sweet  or  common  potatoes  are  raised  during 
this  season  owing  Ui  the  great  heat  and  moisture.  They  aro 
grown  only  in  the  dry  or  winter  season,  when  rain  does  not  fall 
for  several  >\eeks  successively.  Showers  are  more  frequent  in 
the  winter  on  the  coast ;  but  vegetation  iu  the  interior  is  chiefly 
sustnined  by  the  copious  d(r\\s. 

"  Notwithst'inding  the  fruittulneKS  of  Cuba,  all  kinds  of  vege- 
tables and  ])'•  ^visions  on  the  islant.  irc  high-priced,  Avhich  ren- 
ders Uvin*^  expensive  in  larg(>  towns.  A  great  deal  of  time  and 
expense  is  incurred  in  taking  the  prcxhicc  of  the  fields  to 
market,  its  most  of  it  is  transported  thither  on  the  l)acks  of 
small  horses,  in  conseenence  of  the  roads  being  so  bad  in  the 
interior." 

FlHiifcin,  or  Ihtnnva. — "  Tl.ie  plantain  is  seen  growing  over 
the  Avhole  island  of  CHiba,  aiibrding  shade  and  shelter  to  every 
cabin,  liowc  ;er  s'  '1  or  humble.  Though  it  Avants  the  grace 
and  beaaty  of  the  cocoa-nut  or  palm,  its  form  is  peculiarly 
tropical — none  iDore  so.  In  good  soil  it  groAVS  to  the  height  of 
tAvent}'  feet.  Its  trunk,  or  rather  fleshy  stem,  is  holloAv,  resem- 
bling in  outAvard  apjiearance  that  of  the  lily  of  the  Nile,  seen  in 
our  green-house.;.  It  is  alxmt  nini;  inches  in  diameter  at  tlio 
)">ase,  tnpering  towards  the  top,  Avhere  it  sends  out  long,  broad 


.m 


mmmm 


CUBA — DISEASES. 


263 


leaves,  and  also  a  short  stalk,  bearing  a  heavy  cluster  of  fruit. 
The  plantain  requu-cs  to  bo  renewed,  on  good  laad,  only  once 
in  forty  years.  It  sends  from  the  root  a  fresh  shoot  every  nine 
months,  and  the  old  trunk  dies  as  soon  as  the  frnit  becomes 
ripe.  Little  care  is  l)estowed  upon  its  culture!,  being  ])lanted 
in  check-rows  twelve  feet  apart.  It  is  not  unfrequently  ^  oen, 
however,  growing  in  the  shallow  soils  of  the  coral  formation, 
whore  there  is  little  in  which  to  iix  its  routs  except  in  the 
crevices  of  the  rock. 

"  With  a  little  attention,  a  constant  supply  of  plantain  fruit 
is  obtained  all  the  year  round.  It  is  largely  used  by  all  classes, 
and  is  commonly  })ulled  when  green  and  cooked  with  oil  or 
grease.  The  banana  is  merely  a  smaller  bnt  less  prodnctive 
variety  of  the  plantain.  It  i.-;  usually  allowed  to  become  ri])e 
before  it  is  eaten,  and  is  then  found  to  be  a  most  delicious  fruit." 

Diseases. — "  From  wliat  lias  been  said  under  the  head  of 
Physical  Cli)nah\  it  may  be  ijiferred  that  the  tem])erature  of  tlu! 
island  of  Cuba  is  mild,  although  humid  and  warm.  The  ])etter 
to  classify  the  diseases  aicidciit  to  the  climate,  we  shall  divide 
the  year  into  three  periods,  viz.  :  1.  From  December  to  May, 
the  season  of  drought  and  of  the  finc^st  weather.  2.  From  May 
to  Se[)tend)er,  a  jjeriod  of  excessive^  heat,  rain,  and  of  most 
atmospheric  electricity.  3.  From  Septend)(;r  to  December,  the 
season  of  deluging  rains  and  of  the  gr(.'atest  atmospheric 
chang'ths.  During  the  lirst  period,  the  fohowing  complaints 
prt;vail ;  catarrhs,  ephemeral  and  intermittent  fevers;  croup, 
rheumatism,  and,  in  some  years,  pleuiisy,  infiamnuition  of  i\w 
lungs,  and  erui)tive  fevers.  During  the  second  pcniejd,  the  most 
promi aont  are  :  diarrJnea  and  c^H.i'jr  disorders  t)f  .he  digestive 
apparatus  ;  yellow  fever,  .small  pox,  liver  complaint,  Asiatic 
cholera  and  eruptive  fevers  ;  at  the  same  time,  instances  oli'er 
jf  violent  congestion,  pulmonary  intlannnation  and  pleurisy, 
likewise  neuialgia  and  ntnvous  ail'ections.  The  third  period 
comprises  nearly  the  same  diseases  as  the  second ;  how- 
ever, the  yellow  lever  and  the  cholera  begin  to  decline,  aVivl 
gradually  disappear;  dysentery  is  more  commc^n  during  chis 
period,  ."'so  tetanus  or  locked  jaw.  AVithin  a  few  y<iars  those 
cases  of  vc.y  acute  consumpti(m  which  soinetimes  destioy  the 
patient  in  two  months,  are  of  viuy  freipu^ut  occuvrerije.  Not- 
withstanding that  it  has  been  stated  by  some  wi'iters  that  tlu^ 
climate  of  Cuba  is  unfavorable  to  Imman  life,  many  and  remark- 
able instances  of  longevity  can  be  cited,  principally  of  colorcjd 
persons." 

The  climate  of  Cuba  is  exceedingly  :*ano  in  winter,  and  is 
becoming  a  favorite  nssort  for  people  from  the  United  States, 
who  are  threatened  with  pulmonary  diseases. 


ft^ 


■M 


■I 

:  1 


'"■•»,■'■.,      .'^-\'  ■'■        \,   .'•''•     :'-■     •'r     It 


"TTj^'ia 


264 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


The  estimated  population  of  Cuba  is  1,500,000 ;  of  wliich 
number  about  900,000  are  whites,  mostly  of  Spanish  descent, 
200,000  free  colored,  and  400,000  slaves. 

Yellow  Fever  in  Havana. — The  total  number  of  cases  and 
deaths  of  Yellow  Fever,  or  vomito,  in  the  city  of  Havana,  from 
1854  to  '59,  were  as  follows  : 

Years.  Cases.  Deaths. 

1854  .  .  .  5,452  .   .   .  1,028 

1855  .  .  .  3,521  ...  675 

1856  .  .  .  5,984  .   .   .  1,407 

1857  .  .  .  7,040  .   .   .  2,048 

1858  .  .  .  5,326  .    .   .  1,401 

1859  .  .  .  4,453  .   .   .  1,193 


Total 


.  31,776 
Island  of  Porto  Rico 


7,752 


Tlie  Spanish  island  of  Poeto  Eico,  the  smallest  and  moat 
easterly  of  the  Great  Antilles,  is  situated  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
between  latitudes  17'54'  and  18"30''  north,  and  longitudes 
65°37'  and  67^16'  west  of  Greenwich. _  Length,  90  miles; 
breadth,  35  miles.     Area,  3,695  statute  miles. 

The  climate  is  warm  and  moist,  but  salubrious,  except  in  low 
and  marshy  places.  The  extremes  of  temperature  on  the  plains 
are  about  62^  aud  95^  Fahrenheit,  but  it  must  be  several  degrees 
cooler  on  the  highlands,  especially  the  mountainous  regions 
north  and  east.  The  atmosphere  is  very  humid,  but  least  so 
on  the  south  side.  .The  wind  generally  blows  from  the  east  and 
north-north-east,  except  fiom  November  to  March,  when  north- 
ers prevail,  though  seldom  with  great  violence  ;  and  during  the 
wet  season  it  often  blows  from  the  south-east.  The  land  breeze 
is  light  and  fitful.  Whirlwinds  sc^ietimes  occur  during  the 
dry  season,  but  seldom  strong  enough  to  occasion  much  damage. 

Diseases. — The  most  prevalent  during  the  dry  season  are — 
common  catarrhal  afi'ections,  epidemic  influenza,  rheumatism 
and  intermittent  fevers.  Consumption  also  has  its  victim.s. 
During  the  months  of  hot  and  rainy  weather — intermittent, 
bilious,  typhus  and  l>rain  fevers,  small  pox  and  erysipelas. 
Yellow  fever  visits  the  island  only  at  intervals,  while  the  Asiatic 
cholera  has  never  appeared,  although  it  has  raged  fiercely  in 
some  of  the  other  West  India  Islands. 

The  population  of  the  island  is  estimated  at  500,000,  of  which 
number  about  one-half  are  whites ;  the  remainder  mostly  free 
blacks,  there  being  comparatively  but  few  slaves,  being  esti- 
mated at  only  one-tenth  of  the  entire  number  of  souls. 


HUMBOLDT  ON  THE  CLIMATE  OF  CXUk. 


265 


Humboldt  on  the  Climate  of  Cuba. 

"  The  Climate  of  Havana  is  that  which  corresponds  to  the 
extreme  limit  of  the  torrid  zone  ;  it  is  a  tropical  climate,  in 
which  the  unequal  distribution  of  heat  through  the  various  sea- 
sons of  the  3'car  presages  the  transition  to  the  climates  of  the 
temperate  zone. 

Calcutta  (N.  lat.  22^34'),  Canton,  (N.  lat.  23^8'),  Macao  (N. 
lat.  22°12'),  Havana  (N.  lat.  23^9'),  and  Rio  Janeiro  (S.  lat. 
22^54'),  are  places  whose  location  at  the  level  of  the  ocean  and 
near  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  being  equi-distant 
from  the  equator,  makes  them  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
the  study  of  meteorology.  This  science  can  advance  only  by 
the  determination  of  certain  numerical  dements,  which  are  the 
indispensable  basis  of  the  laws  we  wish  to  discover.  As  the 
appearance  of  vegetation  on  the  confines  of  the  torrid  zone 
and  under  the  equator  is  the  same,  Ave  are  accustomed  vaguely 
to  confound  the  climates  of  the  zones  comprised  between  the 
0='  and  10°,  and  15°  and  23°  of  latitude.     The  region  of  the 

Ealm,  the  banana,  aiul  the  arborescent  grasses,  extends  far 
eyond  the  tropics,  but  we  should  err  in  applying  the  result  of 
our  observations  on  the  limit  of  the  torrid  zone,  to  the  phenom- 
ena we  may  observe  in  the  heated  plains  under  the  equator. 

"  It  is  important  to  establish  first,  in  order  to  correct  these 
errors,  the  means  of  temperature  for  the  year  and  the  months, 
as  also  the  oscillations  of  the  thermometer  at  difierent  stations 
under  the  parallel  of  Havana  ;  and  by  an  exact  comparison 
with  other  places  equally  distant  from  the  equator,  Rio  Janeiro 
and  Macro,  for  example,  to  demonstrate  that  the  great  decline 
of  temperature  which  has  been  observed  in  Cuba,  is  owing  to 
the  descent  and  irruption  of  the  masses  of  cold  air  which  ilow 
from  the  temperate  zones  toward  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and 
Capricorn. 

"  The  mean  temperature  of  Havana,  as  shown  by  exceUent 
observations  made  through  four  years,  is  25°  centigrade 
(78°  Fahrenheit),  being  only  2^  C.  (3.6°  F.)  lower  than  that 
of  the  regions  of  America  under  the  equator.  The  proximity 
of  the  sea  increases  the  mean  temperature  of  the  coasts,  but  in 
the  interior  of  the  island,  where  tlie  northern  winds  penetrate 
with  equal  force,  and  where  the  land  has  the  slight  elevation  of 
250  feet,  the  mean  temperature  does  not  exceed  23°  C.  (73°  F.), 
which  is  not  greater  than  that  of  Cairo  and  all  Lower  Egypt. 

"  The  difterence  between  the  mean  temperature  of  tlie  hot- 
test month  and  thrt  of  the  coldest  is  12°  C.  (21.6°  F.)  in  Havana, 
and  8°  C.  (14.4°  s^'.)  in  the  interior,  while  at  Cumand,  it  is  barely 
3°  C.  (5.4°  F.)    July  and  August,  wliich  are  the  hottest  months, 


266 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


attain  in  Cuba  a  mean  temperature  of  28.8°  C.  (83°  F.),  and 
X)erliaps  even  29.5°  C.  (85°  F.),  as  under  the  equator. 

"  The  coldest  months  are  December  and  January ;  their 
mean  temperature  is  17°  C.  (02°  F.)  in  the  interior  of  the 
island,  and  21°  C.  (09°  F.),  in  Havana,  that  is,  from  5°  C.  to 
8°  C.  (9°  F.),  (14°  F.)  less  than  during  the  same  months  under 
the  equator,  but  yet  3°  C.  (5°  F.)  higlier  than  that  of  the  hot- 
test month  in  Paris. 

"  As  regards  the  extremes  touched  by  the  centigrade  ther- 
mometer in  the  shade,  the  same  fact  is  observed  near  the  limits 
of  the  torrid  zone  that  characterizes  the  regions  nearer  the 
equator  (between  0°  and  10°  of  north,  and  south  latitude) ;  a 
thermometer  which  had  been  observed  in  Paris  at  38.4°  (101° 
F.),  does  not  rise  at  Cumana  above  33°  (91°  F.) ;  at  Vera 
Cruz  it  has  touched  32°  (89°  F.),  but  once  in  thirteen  years.  At 
Havana,  during  three  years,  (1810-12),  Serior  Ferrer  found  it  to 
oscillate  only  between '16°  and  30°  (01°  and  80°  F.).  Senor  Ko- 
bredo,  in  his  manuscript  notes,  which  I  have  in  my  possession, 
cites  as  a  notable  event  that  the  temperature  in  1801  rose  to 
34.4°  (94°  F.),  while  in  Paris,  according  to  the  interesting 
investigations  of  Mons.  Arago,  the  extremes  of  temperature 
between  36.7°  and  38°  (97°  and  100°  F.)  have  been  reached 
four  times  in  ten  years  (1793-1803.) 

"  The  great  proximity  of  the  days  on  which  the  sun  passes 
the  zenith  of  those  places  situate  near  the  limit  of  the  torrid 
zone,  makes  the  heat  at  times  very  intense  upon  the  coast  of 
Cuba,  and  in  all  those  places  comprised  between  the  parallels 
of  20°  and  23.1°,  not  so  much  as  regards  entire  months  as  for  a 
term  of  a  few  days.  In  ordinary  vears  the  thermometer  never 
rises  in  August  above  28°  or  30°  C.  (82°  or  86°  F.),  and  I  have 
known  the  inhabitants  complain  of  excessive  heat  when  it  rose 
to  31°  C.  (87.8°  F.) 

"  It  seldom  happens  in  winter  that  the  temperature  falls  to 
10°  or  12°  C.  (50°  to  53°  F.),  but  when  the  north  wind  prevails 
for  several  weeks,  bringing  the  cold  air  of  Canada,  ice  is  some- 
times formed  at  night,  in  the  interior  of  the  island,  and  in  the 
plain  near  Havana.  Fro  ji  the  observations  of  Messrs.  Wells 
and  Wilson,  we  may  suppose  that  this  effect  is  produced  by 
the  radiation  o^  caloric  wiien  the  thermometer  stands  at  5°  C. 
(41°  F.),  and  even  9°  C.  (48°  F.)  above  zero.  This  formation 
of  a  thick  ice  very  near  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  more  worthy 
the  attention  of  naturalism's  from  the  fact,  that  at  Caraccas 
(10°ul'  N.  lat.),  at  an  elevatioi:  of  300  feet,  the  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere  has  never  fallei:  below  11°  C.  (41.8°  F.) ;  and 
that  yet  nearer  to  the  equator  we  3iavo  to  ascend  8,900  feet  to 
see  i(;e  form.     We  also  observe  tht.fc  between  Havana  and  St. 


11 


HUMBOLDT  ON  THE  CLIMATE  OF  CUBA. 


267 


Domingo,  and  between  Batabano  and  Jamaica,  there  is  a  dif- 
ference of  only  4P  or  5^  of  latitude,  and  j'et,  in  8fc.  Domingo, 
Jamaica,  Martinique  ajid  Guadalupe,  the  minimum  temperature 
in  the  plains  is  from  18.5^  to  20.5°  C.  (65°  to  68°  F.) 

"  It  will  be  interesting  to  compare  the  climate  of  Havana 
with  that  of  Macao  and  Itio  de  Janeiro,  one  similarly  situated 
near  the  northern  extreme  of  the  torrid  zone,  but  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  Asia,  and  the  other  near  the  southern  limit  of  the 
torrid  zone,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  America.  The  means  of 
temperature  at  Bio  Janeiro  are  deduced  from  three  thousand 
five  hundred  observations  made  by  Seiior  Benito  Sanchez 
Dorta ;  those  of  Macao  from  twelve  hundi'ed  observations 
which  the  Abbe  Richenet  has  kindly  sent  me. 


Mean. 


For  the  year,  . 

For  the  hottest  month, 

For  the  coldest  mouth. 


Ilavann. 
N.  lat.  23' 9'. 
78.00=^  F. 

83.81°  F. 
69.98°  F. 


Macao, 

N.  lat.  23°]2'. 

73.94°  F. 
83.12°  F. 
61.88°  F. 


Rio  Janeiro. 
S.  lat.  23  TA'. 

74.30°  F. 
80.96°  F. 
68.00°  F. 


"  The  chmate  of  Havana,  notwithstanding  the  frequent  pre- 
valence of  north  and  north-west  winds,  is  warmer  than  either 
that  of  Macao  or  Rio  Janeiro.  The  first  named  of  these  places 
is  somewhat  cold,  because  of  the  west  winds  which  prevail 
along  the  eastern  shores  of  the  gxeat  continent.  The  proximity 
of  very  broad  stretches  of  land,  covered  with  mountains  and 
high  plains,  makes  the  distribution  of  heat  through  the  months 
of  the  year  more  unequal  at  Macao  and  Canton,  than  in  an 
island  bordered  by  sea-shores  upon  the  west,  and  on  the  north 
by  the  heated  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  Thus  it  is  that  at 
Canton  and  Macao  the  winters  are  much  more  severe  than  at 
Havana. 

"  The  mean  temiDeratures  of  December,  January,  February 
and  March,  at  Canton,  in  1801,  were  between  15°  and  17.3° 
(59°  and  62°  F,) ;  at  Macao,  between  16.6°  and  20°  (61^^  and 
68°  F.) ;  while  at  Havana  they  were  generally  between  21°  and 
24.3°  (69°  and  75°) ;  yet  the  latitude  of  Macao  is  one  degree 
south  of  that  of  Havana,  and  the  latter  city  and  Canton  are  on 
the  same  parallel,  with  a  difference  of  one  mile,  a  httle  more  or 
less.  But  although  the  isothermal  lines,  or  lines  of  equal  heat, 
are  convex  toward  the  pole  in  the  syslem  of  climates  of  Eastern 
Asia,  as  also  in  the  si/ste>ii  of  cliinales  of  Eastern  America,  the  cold 
on  the  same  gcogi'apical  parallel  is  greater  in  Asia."     The 

*  The  difference  of  climate  is  so  great  on  the  eastern  and  western  shores  of 
the  old  continent,  that  in  Canton,  lat.  23  8',  the  mean  annnal  iemp(!rature  is 
22.9°  (03"  F.),  while  at  Santa  Cruz  de  Teneriffb,  lat.  28  28',  li  is  23.8^74  F.), 
according  to  Buch  and  Escolar.  Canton,  situate  upon  an  eastern  coast,  enjoys 
a  continental  climate.   Teueriffe  is  an  island  near  the,  western  coast  of  Africa. — U. 


lit 


r dtmumMtttrnm^t 


U 


h  i 


268 


INFLUENCE  OP  CLIMATE. 


Abbe  Eiclienet,  who  nsecl  the  excellent  maximum  and  mininmm 
thermometer  of  Six,  has  observed  it  to  fall  even  to  3.3"  and  5° 
(38°  and  41°  F.),  in  the  nine  years,  from  1806  to  1814. 

"  At  Canton,  the  thermometer  sometimes  falls  to  0°  C.  (32° 
F. ),  and  from  the  radiation  of  caloric,  ice  is  formed  on  the  roofs 
of  the  houses.  Althor  .;h  this  excessive  cold  never  lasts  more 
than  one  day,  the  English  merchants  residing  at  Canton  light 
fires  daring  the  months  o^"  November,  December  and  January, 
■while  at  Havana  fires  ar<   .lever  needed. 

"  Hail  of  large  size  frequentlv  falV.  in  the  Asiatic  countries 
roimd  Canton  and  in  Macao,  wliile  at  Havana  fifteen  years  will 
pass  without  a  single  fall  of  hail.  In  all  three  of  these  places 
the  thermometer  will  £  onetimes  stand  for  hours  between  0^  and 
4°  C.  (32°  and  39°  F.) ;  yet  notwithstanding  (which  seems  to 
me  more  strange),  it  has  never  been  known  to  snow  ;  and 
although  the  temperature  falls  so  low,  the  banana  and  the 
palm  grow  as  weU  in  the  neighborhoods  of  Canton,  Macao  and 
Havana,  as  in  the  plains  immediately  tinder  the  equator. 

"  In  the  present  state  of  the  world,  it  is  an  advantage  to  the 
study  of  meteorology,  that  we  can  gather  so  many  numerical 
elements  of  the  climates  of  countries  situate  almost  immediately 
under  the  tropics.  The  five  great  cities  of  the  commercial 
world — Canton,  Macao,  Calctitta,  Havana  and  Eio  Janeiro,  are 
found  in  this  position.  Besides  these,  we  have  in  the  Northern 
hemispliere,  Muscat,  Syenc,  New  Santander,  Durango,  and  the 
Northern  Sandwich  Islands  ;  in  the  Southern  hemisphere — 
Bourbon,  Isle  of  France,  and  the  port  of  Cobija,  between  Co- 
piapo  and  Arica,  places  much  frequented  by  Europeans,  and 
which  present  to  the  naturalist  the  same  advantages  of  position 
as  Eio  Janeiro  and  Havana. 

"  Climatology  advances  slowly,  because  we  gather  b}^  chance 
the  results  obtained  at  points  of  the  globe  where  the  civilization 
of  man  is  just  beginning  its  development.  These  points  form 
small  groups,  separated  from  each  other  by  immense  spaces  of 
lands  ttnknown  to  the  meteorologist.  In  order  to  attain  a 
knowledge  ot'  the  laws  of  nature  regtdating  the  distiibution  of 
heat  in  the  world,  we  must  give  to  observation  a  direction  in 
conformity  with  the  needs  of  a  nascent  science,  and  ascertain 
its  most  important  numerical  data.  New  Santander,  tipon  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  probal)ly  has  a  mean  tem- 
perature lower  than  that  of  the  Island  of  Cuba,  for  the  atmos- 
phere there  must  participate,  during  the  cold  of  winter,  in  the 
effects  of  the  great  continent  extendmg  towards  the  north-west. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  leave  the  system  of  climates  of  West- 
ern America,  if  we  pass  the  lake,  or,  more  strictly  speaking,  the 
submerged  valley  of  the  Atlantic,  and  fix  our  attention  upon 


HUMBOLDT  ON  THE  CLIMATE  OF  CUBA. 


269 


the  coasts  of  Africa,  we  find  that  in  the  els-Atlantic  system  of 
climates  upon  the  western  borders  of  the  old  continent,  the  iso- 
thermal lines  are  again  raised,  being  convex  towards  the  pole. 
The  tropic  of  Cancer  j^assos  between  Cape  Bojador  and  Cape 
Blanco,  near  the  river  Onro,  upon  the  inliospitable  confines  of 
the  Desert  of  Sahara,  and  the  mean  temperature  of  those  coun- 
tries is  necessarily  hotter  than  that  of  Havana,  for  the  double 
reason  of  their  position  upon  a  western  coast,  and  the  proximity 
of  the  desert,  which  reflects  the  heat,  and  scatters  particles  of 
sand  in  the  atmosphere. 

"  We  have  already  seen  that  the  great  declinations  of  tem- 
perature in  the  island  of  Cuba  are  of  so  short  duration,  that 
neither  the  banana,  the  sugar-cane,  nor  the  other  productions 
of  the  torrid  zone,  sufter  the  shghtest  detriment.  Every  one  is 
aware  how  readily  plants,  that  have  great  organic  vigor,  sust.i  a 
momentary  cold,  and  that  the  orange  trees  in  the  vicinity  of 
Genoa  resist  snow  storms  and  a  degree  of  cold  not  lower  than 
6°  or  7°  C.  below  zero  (21.2°  or  19.4°  F.  above  zero). 

_"  As  the  vegetation  of  Cuba  ]3resents  an  identity  of  character 
with  that  of  regions  near  tJie  equator,  it  is  very  extraordinary 
to  find  there,  even  in  the  plains,  a  vegetation  of  the  colder  ch- 
mates,  identical  with  that  of  tlie  mountains  of  Southern  Mexico. 
In  other  Avorks,  I  have  called  the  attention  of  botanists  to  this 
extraordinary  phenomenon  in  the  geography  of  plants.  The 
pine  (pimcs  occidenfaUs),  is  not  found  in  the  Lesser  Antilles,  and 
according  to  Mr.  Robert  Brown,  not  even  in  Jamaica  (between 
174°  and  18°  of  latitude),  notwithstanding  the  elevation  of  the 
Blue  Mountains  in  that  island.  Further  north  only  do  we 
begin  to  find  it,  in  the  mountains  of  St.  Domingo,  and  through- 
out the  Island  of  Cul)a,  which  extend  from  20°  to  23°  of  lati- 
tude. There,  it  attains  a  height  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet,  and 
and  what  is  still  more  strange,  the  pine  and  the  mahogany 
graw  side  by  side  in  the  plauis  of  the  Isle  of  Pines.  The  pine 
is  also  found  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  Cuba,  on  the  sides  of 
the  Cobre  Mountains,  where  the  soil  is  arid  and  sandy. 

"  The  interior  plaiij  of  Mexico  is  covered  with  this  same  class 
of  coniferas,  if  we  may  rely  upon  the  comparison  made  by  Boii- 
plaud  and  myself,  with  the  specimens  we  brought  from  Aca- 
guisotla,  the  snow  mountain  of  Toluca,  and  the  Cofre  of  Perote, 
for  these  do  not  seem  to  differ  specifically  from  the  j9/«?f6' orc/- 
dentalis  of  the  Antilles,  as  descrii)ed  by  Schwartz,  But  these 
pines,  which  we  find  at  the  level  of  the  sea  in  Cuba,  between 
the  20°  and  22°  of  latitude,  and  only  upon  its  southern  side,  do 
not  descend  lower  than  3,200  feet  above  that  level  upon  the 
Mexican  continent,  between  the  parallels  of  17.]°  and  19.]°.  I 
have  even  observed  that  on  the  road  from  Perote  to  Jalapa,  on 


TWII6i*':„S*.ni(;r.«b,«|ai«»»a*»«AK** 


270 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


the  eastern  mountains  of  Mexico,  opposite  to  Cuba,  the  limit  of 
the  pines  is  5,950  feet,  while  on  the  western  mountains,  between 
Chilpancingo  and  Acap'ilco,  near  Cuasiniquilapa,  two  degrees 
further  south,  it  descends  to  3,900  feet,  and  at  soiuo  points, 
perhaps,  even  to  the  line  of  2,860  feet. 

"  These  anomalies  of  position  are  very  rare  under  the  torrid 
zone,  and  depend  probably  less  on  the  temperature  than  on  the 
soil.  In  the  system  of  the  migration  of  plants,  we  should  sup- 
pose that  the  piiixs  occidenf<tUs  of  Cuba  had  come  from  Yuca- 
tan, before  the  opening  of  the  channel  between  Cape  Catocho 
and  Cape  San  Antonio,  and  not,  by  any  means,  from  the  United 
States,  although  the  coniferous  plants  abound  there,  for  the 
species  of  whose  gcogi'aphy  we  are  treating  has  not  yet  been 
found  in  Florida. 

.AIEAN  OF  OBSERVATIONS  AT  HAVANA. 
North  Latitude,  23  9'. 
Months. 

March, 
April, 
May,  . 
June,  . 
July,  . 
August, 

Mean, 

Comparison  between  the  mean  temperature  in  the  interior, 
and  on  the  shore  of  Cuba,  and  at  Cumanti,  in  South  America. 
See  following  Table. 


1810-12. 

Seasons. 

Months. 

1810-12.  Seasons. 

"  Fahr. 

-  Fahr. 

"  Fahr.     °  Fahr. 

79.0 

September, 

.      82.6 

78.6 

October,    . 

.    79.0 

82.0 

79 

November, 

.    75.6  —  79 

82.7 

December, 

.    70.0 

82.9 

January,    . 

.    70.0 

83.4 

83 

February,  . 

.    72.0  —  70 

•                • 

•                 •                  • 

.     78.0"  Fahr. 

December  to  Februar}', 
March  to  May, 
June  to  August,    . 
September  to  November, 

Mean, 

Coldest  months,    . 
Hottest 


Ubajay,  in 
of  Cuba. 

64.4°  F 
71.2    " 

81.8    " 
74.8    " 


73.2 

62.0 
83.5 


Havana 
coast. 

7\2°F, 
79.2    " 
83.0    " 
78.6    " 

78.0    " 


Cuman;t. 
N.  lat.  10  27' 
80.4°  F, 

83.7  " 
82.0  " 
82.6    " 


70.0 
83.0 


81.7 

79.2 
84.4 


At  EoME,  N.  lat.  41°53'— Mean  temperature,    59.0°  F. 

Hottest  month,      .     77.0    " 
«  «         «         Coldest       "  .    42.3    " 


I? 


n\IN  IN  HAVANA. 


271 


Fall  of  Rain  in  Havana. 


it 


■f 


The  mean  anniial  fall  of  rain  in  Havana  for  a  period  of  five 
years  was  about  40  Inches.    Average  fall  duruig  the  Seasons  : 


Spring, 
Summer, 


7.51  inches. 
14.23      " 


Antnmn, 
".Yintcr, 


11.48  inches. 
G.54      " 


"  Notwithstanding  the  frequency  of  rain  diiring  the  hot  sea- 
son, that  is,  during  the  months  of  Jul}',  August  arCi  September, 
these  months  do  not  present  the  greatest  number  of  cloudy 
days.  The  rains  of  summer,  although  copious,  are  of  short 
duration,  and  those  days  on  which  showers  do  not  fall,  are  in 
generjil  perfectly  cloudless.  It  may  almost  be  said  that  during 
these  months  no  clouds  are  to  be  seen  in  the  atmosphere, 
except  while  the  shower  is  falling,  while  in  the  other  months, 
cloudy  days  sometimes  occur  witliout  rain.  Days  during  which 
the  heavens  are  completely  clouded  are  extremely  rare  in  Cuba. 

The  following  Table  gives  the  mean  for  each  month  : 


Months. 

Cloudy  Days 

).     f 'loar  Days 

Months.     Cloudy  Days 

J.     Cl(!ar  Days 

partly 

cloudy. 

partly  cloudy 

January, 

.    5 

26 

August,          .     6 

25 

February, 

.    8 

20 

September,    .     7 

23 

March,    . 

.    7 

24 

October,        .     7 

24 

April, 

.    5 

25 

November,    .     8 

22 

May,       . 

.    8 

23 

December,    .     7 

24 

June, 

.    6 

24 

— 

July,   •  • 

.    6 

25 

Total,         .  80 

285 

"  These  tables  will  give  some  idea  of  the  beauty  of  the  sky 
in  t]iese  regions,  and  of  its  effect  upon  the  life  and  luxuriant 
growth  of  vegetation.  A  high  temperature  moderated  by  great 
evaporation,  Avhiclx  pours  through  the  atmosphere  a  continuous 
torrent  of  watery  vapors,  presents  the  most  favorable  conditions 
for  the  develoj)ment  of  an  admirable  vegetation  ;  which  again 
contributes,  on  its  part,  to  maintain  the  humidit}^  of  the  atmos- 
lahere — soul  of  its  exuberant  life.  Tims  it  is  that  through  all 
seasons  of  the  year  the  fields  and  forests  of  Cuba  preserve  their 
verdure  ;  but  it  is  principally  at  the  begin  uing  of  summer, 
during  the  rainy  season,  that  all  nature  seems  to  be  trans- 
formed to  flowers." 

With  the  exception  of  thr  northern  Bahamas,  which  lie  be- 
yond tl'.e  (ropic  of  Cancer,  the  entire  West  India  Archipelago 
is  situated  in  the  tonid  zone.  The  heat  is,  consequently,  very 
great  on  the  lower  grounds,  where,  however,  it  is  temj)ered  by 
the  sea-breezes,  which  generally  blow  in  the  afternoon,  when 
their  cooling  agency  is  most  needed. 


\m 


272 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


m 


Snow  is  nover  known  to  fall,  but  slight  frosts  occasionally 
occur  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  Cuba.  When  the  sun  is 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  archipelago  enjoys  the  benefit 
of  the  trade-winds,  blowing  from  an  easterly  direction,  and  dif- 
fusing over  it  a  refreshing  coolness  ;  Init  when  the  sun  has 
passed  the  Equator,  the  trade-winds  retire  northward,  and  are 
replaced  by  south-eastern  winds,  which  are  warm  and  gentle. 
The  long  rainy  season  commences  in  July  and  continues  till 
the  month  of  I^ovembcr,  when  the  rain  often  falls  in  torrents, 
but  rarel}'  lasts  for  many  hours  continuously.  It  is  ushered  in 
by  violent  gusts  of  wind  accompanied  by  terntic  thunder-storms, 
and  during  their  continuance,  the  destructive  yellow  fever  and 
other  malignant  diseases  are  prevalent. 

Climate  of  the  Bahamas. 

This  extensive  chain  of  low  islands,  stretching  in  a  south-east 
and  north-west  direction,  lying  between  20^  and  28^  N.  lati- 
tude, have  been  estimated  at  500,  of  which,  however,  a  great 
proportion  are  mere  islets  and  rocks,  here  culled  cays  or  keys  ; 
not  more  than  12  or  15  are  inhabited.  The  Gvlf  Stream  inns 
between  the  Great  Bahama  Island  and  the  coast  of  Florida  at 
the  rate  of  five  or  six  miles  an  hour  ;  and  many  vessels  have 
been  wrecked  in  passing  this  dangerous  strait,  through  which 
rush  tha  heated  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  climate  of  the  Bahamas  is  salubrious.  In  Turk's  and 
other  salt  islands,  no  epidemic  disease  has  ever  been  known. 
The  more  northern  islands,  during  the  winter  months,  are  ren- 
dered cool  and  agreeable  by  the  north-west  breeze  from  the 
continent  of  America.  At  Ntnv  Providence,  the  thermometer  in 
the  shade  varies  from  about  85°  or  90°  Fahr.  in  summer,  to  G0° 
or  65°  in  >\inter.  The  more  southerly  islands  .are  hotter 
throughout  the  year,  but  they  enjoy  the  cooling  sea-breezes 
which  blow  within  the  tropics,  though  these  do  not  extend  to 
Abaco,  the  most  northern  of  the  Bahamas. 

The  subjoined  Table  exhibits  an  average  of  meteorological 
observations  for  seven  years,  which  shows  a  remarkable  even- 
ness of  temperature. 


Barometer. 

°  Fahr. 

In.  Ruin. 

Barometer. 

°  Fahr. 

In.  Rain. 

Jan.,  . 

.  30.10 

73 

4.72 

August,     30.15 

84 

7.11 

Feb., 

.  30.24 

71 

3.75 

Sept.,     .  29.97 

81 

9.74 

March, 

.  30.07 

72 

1.06 

Oct.,       .  29.99 

80 

7.80 

April, 

.  30.03 

75 

1.82 

Nov.,      .  30.00 

76 

2.25 

May, 

.  30.00 

79 

2.25 

Dec,      .  30.02 

72 

1.70 

June, 
July, 

.  30.09 
.  30.11 

81 
84 

5.12 

4.68 

Total  inches  of  Kain, 

.  51.90 

! 

1      i 

M 

BERMUDA— GULF  STREAM. 

273 

Bermuda— Gulf  Stream. 

9 

"  The  climnto  of  tlio  Bermncla  Islands  has  a  mean  temper- 
ature between  that  of  the  West  Indies  and  British  North 
America,  partaking  neither  of  the  extreme  heat  of  the  one,  nor 
the  excessive  cold  of  the  other.  It  is  gx-eatly  improved  by  the 
warmth  of  the  Gxlf  Streo))!,  which  sweeps  along  between  Ber- 
muda and  the  American  Continent ;  the  winter  months  resem- 
bluig  the  early  part  of  October  in  England,  but  without  its 
fi'osts.  The  sweet  strains  of  the  Bard  of  Erin  have  sounded 
the  praises  of  the  cedar-groves  and  wood-nymphs  of  the  '  Fairy 
Isles,'  as  the  Bernmdas  have  been  styled  by  Shakspeare — 

"  '  No  :  ne'er  did  the  wave  in  its  cltmcnt  steep 

An  island  of  lovelier  clianns  ; 
It  blooms  in  the  f'iant  embrace  of  the  deep, 

Like  Ilebe  in  Hercules'  arms  ; 
The  blush  of  your  bowers  is  light  to  the  eye, 

And  their  melody  Imlm  to  the  ear ; 
But  the  liery  planet  of  day  is  too  nigh, 

And  the  snow  spirit  never  coraes  here.' 

"  Bermuda  is  not  so  much  subject  to  diseases  as  are  the 
more  northern  climates.  Epidemics  are  of  unfi-equent  occur- 
rence, and  deaths  from  all  causes,  as  shown  by  the  statistical 
tables,  amount  to  no  more  than  14.5  per  cent,  annually. 

"The  climate  of  Bermuda  would  prove  eminently  eligible 
for  those  natives  of  cold  countries,  who,  from  general  delicacy 
of  constitution,  are  unable  to  undergo  active  continuous  labor 
with  exposure,  or  who  otherwise  suft'er  from  a  cold  and  variable 
climate.  As  far  as  the  author's  observation  goes,  the  effect  of 
residence  in  Bermuda,  on  such  persons,  is  usually  beneficial, 
especially  on  those  who  are  predisposed  to  scrofula  or  pulmo- 
nary consumption,  or  Avho  have  evinced  a  peculiar  tendency  to 
colds  and  bronchial  aflections  during  the  winter  months.  In 
such  cases  the  physical  energies  usually  undergo  a  rapid  and 
marked  change,  resulting  in  permanent  good  health.  I  believe 
that  immigrants  of  this  description,  by  observing  common  pru- 
dence in  their  mode  of  Hving,  might,  with  perfect  safety,  and 
with  every  prospect  of  improved  health,  engage  as  farmers  iu 
the  islands  generally. 

"  The  efi'ects  of  the  Gujf  S/rcam  on  the  cHmate  of  Bermuda 
are  very  manifest.  This  powerful  current,  after  rising  under 
the  tropic,  and  flowing  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  through  the 
Straits  of  Bahama,  runs  in  a  north-easterly  direction  along  the 
American  coast,,  washing  the  Great  Bank  of  Newfoundland,, 
and,  after  flowing  upwards  of  3,000  miles,  finally  reaches  the 
Azores,  and  even  the  Bay  of  Biscay.     The  temperature  of  the 


I-; 


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274 


INFLUEN'CE   OF  CLIJIATE. 


water  of  this  current  is  8-  aliovo  that  of  tlio  surrounding;  sea 
at  tlio  Great  Bank,  and  i)^  above  the  temperature  of  the  sea  at 
Azores.  Rennel  estimates  tlie  dimensions  of  the  current  and 
the  trac^t  that  receives  it  at  2,U()0  miles  in  length,  and  350  in 
lireadth.  ]^oth  are  marked  by  the  sea-weed,  and  are  well 
known  to  mariners.  V)y  this  cauldron  of  warm  water  the  ice- 
bergs from  the  north  are  dissolved  ;  the  surrounding  waters 
and  sn])erincnml)ent  atmospheie  ar(^  warmed,  and  the  temper- 
ature of  the  neighboring  continent  elevated.  A  proper  retreat 
is  also  ixlibrded  to  the  various  kinds  of  lish  after  their  season  of 
spawning  has  passed,  and  while  the  severity  of  the  frosts  drives 
them  from  the  shores.  Such  are  some  of  the  leading  o]iera- 
tious  perceived  in  the  economy  of  nature  in  this  part  of  the 
world. 

"  The  effects  of  the  climate  upon  the  agricultui-al  produce 
are  more  favorable  than  in  other  coimtries  xmder  the  same 
mean  annual  temperature.  Besides  many  of  the  fruits  of  the 
temperate  regions,  the  heat  of  summer  pei'mits  those  of  a 
tropical  character  to  flourish  ;  hence,  a  greater  variety  may  be 
produced  than,in  any  other  2)art  of  the  world.  The  season  of 
vegetation  is  sufficiently  ext(^nd''d  to  ripen  a  great  many  kinds 
of  grain,  V(\getables  and  fruit. 

"  The  most  agreeable  season  at  Bermuda  is  the  winter,  or 
cold  season,  which  lasts  from  November  to  March  ;  the  mean 
temperatiu'c  l)eing  00  '  Fahr.  The  prevailing  winds  are  then  from 
the  M'estward  ;  but  if  from  the  north-west,  tine,  hard  wcurther, 
with  a  clear  sky,  accom])anies  them,  tlie  thermometer  varying 
from  50  -  to  56  \  This  weather  often  terminates  in  a  very  tine, 
l)riglit  day,  with  a  very  slight  wind  and  partial  calms  ;  after- 
wards the  v.ind  invaria])ly  changes  to  tlie  south-west,  and  the 
weather  becomes  hazy,  damp,  and  attended  with  heavy  rains 
and  gales  ;  the  tlicrniometer  rising  to  (X)"  and  70°. 

"  These  alternate  north-westerly  and  south-westerly  winds 
prevail  during  nine  months  of  the  year,  the  wind  remaining  at 
no  other  point  for  any  li>ngth  of  time.  The  change  is  shown 
by  a  dilforencc  of  l-i  -^  in  tlio  temperature. 

TEMPERATUKE  OF  BERMUDA. 
Kangc  of  the  Biiroinctor  and  ThormomctcT  ;  average  for  four  years. 

Barometer.  Thermometer. 

Maximum,     .         .         .     30.4biO  .  .     85..S5 

Minimum,      .         .         .     2\\'2'M)  .  .     49.00 

Oscillati(m,  or  Bange,  .       1.244  .  .     35.05 

Spring  commences  at  the  end  of  February,  and  the  weather 
usually  continues  mild,  with  refreshing  showers  of  rain  and 


TEMPERATUEE  OF  BERMUDA. 


275 


gentle   breezes   from    the   south   and  west,   unt'l   the   end  of 

Ihc  Suniniev  begins  in  June,  and  the  -sveatlior  bei'omes  hot. 
Cahns  about  tliis  time  generally  replaeo  the  gentle  breezes  of 
May  ;  the  atmosiihere  becomes  sultry  and  oi')prL'ssive,  and  long 
droughts  are  common,  which  are  usually  succeeded  by  severe 
thunder-storms.  The  "\veatli(>r,  in  Septeml)er,  changes  its  char- 
act(>r,  and  again  becomes  mild  ;aid  agreeable. 

"  These  islands,  -which  are  generally  and  ])roperly  allowed  to 
be  healthy,  have;  only  been  attiicted  a  seventh  time  since  their 
settlenient — a  period  of  aljove  two  centuries — with  yellow 
fever. 

"  The  prodiictions  of  the  soil  are  varied.  Tho  wheats  of  the 
south  of  Europe^  Egypt  and  Africa  could  hardly  fail  in  Ber- 
muda. The  American  wheat  \uxh  been  tried  with  succ^ess.  Ex- 
cellent 2>otatoes  are  easily  ciiltivated  ;  the  sweet  potato  yields 
abundantly.  Arrowroot,  cassava  and  yams  also  yield  abundant 
crops.  Ginger  and  tcjbacco  are  easily  cultivated  ;  and  vegeta- 
ble oils  iiboumh  The  cotton  raised  in  Bernnida  is  accoimtod 
very  firm  and  substantial,  but  tlie  flax  plants  ai'o  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  the  neglected  products  of  Bermuda. 

"  Drugs  arc  here  in  great  abundance.  The  fruits  could  be 
cultivated  with  nuicli  advantage  ;  the  strawberry,  the  grape, 
the   liu',  the  guava,  the   shaddock,   and   many  other  tropical 


O'  . 


fruits,  ripen  in  the  oj)(>n  air  without  assistance  from  art." — 
"  Bermuda,"'  h//  T.  L.  Gudef,  M.D.     L<yu<lui>,  185<). 

Bermuda. 

North  Lutitude,  o'^  U)'  ;  West  Lo."gitiulo,  G4  ol'. 
Monthly  mean  TciiiinTuturc  of  the  Air — Is.Vi. 
Jan.         Fi'b.       March. 

.  Oo.l  G1.8  0^.2 
.  ()-).4  ('.1.9  (J4.7 
.     00.4      02.0      (-5.0 


Tiino. 

9  A.M., 
Noon, 
4  P.M., 

9  A.M., 
Noon, 
4  P.M., 


Julv. 

SIA 
81.4 
81.5 


All!,'. 

8.').8 
85.5 
84.4 


Sept. 

81.2 

81.8 
81.4 


Ajiril. 
07.4 
07.7 
07.9 

Oct. 

74.0 
75.1 
74.3 


>fav. 
7118 

72.4 
72.7 

X.iv. 

0<).4 

(;9.5 

09.3 


Jun(>. 

77.8 

78.1 
78.1 

Drc. 

05.2 
05.7 
05.4 


Yt-ar. 

71.9 
72.4 
72.3 


Maximum  temperature  for  August,    . 
Miniumm  tem})eraturo  tor  August,     . 
Maximum  temperatu^'e  for  rdn'uary, 
Mininuim  temperature  for  February, 
Extreme  range  of  temperature. 

Note. — 'V\w  year  18.j4  appears  to  have  been  warmer  than  tlie  avera^< 
sous  of  previous  years. 


87"  Fahr. 
81       " 
00       " 
50       " 
31       " 


■  ^.^if  ■    J 


Sea- 


27G 


IXFLUENCE   OF  CLIMATE. 


r  i 


Climate  and  Productions  of  Hayti. 

This  I'ieli  and  beautiful  island,  the  second  in  wizo  of  the  West 
Indies,  Leeward  grou]),  lies  south-east  of  Cuba,  and  separated 
from  it  by  the  '\^'ind\vard  Passage,  50  miles  broad.  Its  ex- 
treme lenj>,th  from  cast  to  west  about  401)  miles  ;  greatest 
breadth,  150  miles  ;  area,  27,000  square  mil(>s.  The  east  part 
of  the  island  is  occupied  by  the;  ra'})ublic  of  Sun  Domingo,  and 
the  west  part  by  the  Empire  of  Hayti. 

Cliiiialc,  d'.'. — There  are  two  seasons  in  Hayti — a  wet  season 
and  a  dry  season.  During  the  former  heavy  rains  are  frequent, 
three  and  ev(ni  five  inches  at  times  falling  in  24  hours  ;  and  in 
the  latter,  little  or  no  raiii  falls,  and,  in  some  localities,  years 
have  passed  over  Avithout  a  single  heavy  shower.  At  8au  Do- 
mingo the  mean  temperature  is  78^,  and  the  extremes  (iO^  and 
95'^  ;  while  at  Port-au-Prince,  the  range  is  from  03"  to  10-1^. 
The  minimum  occurs  in  December,  and  the  maxinuini  in  August 
and  Septemljer.  Land-l)reezes  moderate  the  summer  heats. 
Hurricanes  are  less  seldom  here  than  in  the  AViudwnrd  or 
Caribbean  Islands.  Earthquakes,  though  not  frequent,  have 
been  very  disastrous.  Nowhere  is  tropical  vegetation  seen  to 
greater  advantage  than  in  Hayti ;  contribiTting,  with  the  lofty, 
and  at  times,  rugged  mountains  and  deep  valleys,  to  render  the 
scenery  of  this  island  luisurpassed.  Majestic  pines,  noble  ma- 
hogany trees,  fustic,  satin-wood,  lignum-vitio  clothe  the  n\oun- 
tains,  and  form  the  })rincipal  exports  of  the  southern  provinces. 
The  roblc  or  oak,  which  yields  hard,  durable  wood  ;  the  wax- 
palm,  divi-divi,  numerous  line  cabinet  woods,  and  the  riciiest 
Bowering  plants,  abound ;  together  with  the  usual  tropical 
vegeuables — plantains,  bananas,  yams  and  batatas  ;  also  fruits, 
including  oranges,  pine-ap[)lcs,  cherimoyas,  sapodillas,  with 
melons  and  gTa})es.  The  startle  culti\ated  products  are  coli'ee, 
sugar,  indigo,  cotton,  tobacco  and  cocoa  ;  the  quantities  of 
which  raised  have  fallen  oil',  in  consequence  of  the  unsettled 
state  of  the  island. 

Island  of  Jamaica. 

This  is  one  of  the  Great  Antilles,  and  the  princi]>al  of  the 
West  India  Islands,  lying  between  17  40'  and  IS -30'  N.  latitude. 

"  The  mean  annual  temperature  at  Kingston  is  78^  ;  in  sum- 
mer, 81'-^  ;  in  Avinter,  7(5  \  The  ramy  seast)ns  are  from  May  to 
August,  and  from  October  to  November.  Earthquakes  are  fre- 
quent ;  hurricanes  less  so  than  in  the  other  West  India  Islands. 
The  soil  is  naturally  less  productive  than  in  many  of  the  AN'est 
India  Islands  ;  but  most  of  staple  products  of  tropical  climates 
are  i*aised,  sugar  being  the  chief.  Indigo,  cotton  and  cocoa 
were  form(>rly  more  important  staples  than  at  present.  Maize, 
Guinea  corn  and  rice  are  noAv  the  chief  grains  raised. 


7711 


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PAET    XIV. 


CLIMATE  OF  SOUTH  AMEIUIM 


4 


Tnis  ricli  and  fertile  portion  of  the  Now  World,  with  two- 
thirds  of  its  area  situated  betAVeen  the  tropics,  makes  Iho  cli- 
niatc  of  Sonth  America  necessarily  very  hot,  ])arti(.'nlar]y  ah)n{^ 
the  Athmtio  coast  and  sliores  of  the  ('aril)l.ean  Sea.  Th(jugh 
yieldini,'  in  this  respect  to  Africa,  the  corresponding  continent 
of  the  Old  "World,  the  temperature  is,  for  the  most  part,  con- 
sideraLl}'  higher  tlian  that  of  North  America  ;  for  AAhile  the  lat- 
ter has  its  maximum  hrcadth  in  the  Arctic  regions,  the  former 
attains  its  greatest  widtli  in  the  toriid  zone  near  the  Equattn*. 

The  highest  mean  tenqicraturo  occurs  in  the  parts  of  New 
Granada,  Venezuela  and  Guiaua,  which  is  enclosed  within  tlio 
isothermal  line  of  Bl'^  Fahr.,  wliilc  in  portions  of  Abyssinia,  the 
mean  temperature  exceeds  85^.  This  great  diflerence  is,  no 
doubt,  chiefly  owing  to  the  greater  humidit}'  of  South  America, 
its  vast  forests,  the  absence  of  sandy  deserts,  the  iufluenco  of 
the  trade  winds,  and  the  freer  access  to  its  shores  of  the  great 
oceans  of  the  globe.  In  contradistincticm  to  the  other  great 
divisions  of  the  land,  the  western  shores  of  this  continent 
are  considerably  cohler  than  the  eastern,  owing  to  the  low 
temperature  of  the  "Antarctic  Drift,"  or  Humboldt  Current, 
which,  setting  out  from  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  flows  north-east- 
ward against  the  shores  of  Chili,  then  Jiorthward  along  the 
coast  of  Peru  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Etpuitor. 

'■•  South  America  is  also  characterized  by  great  moisture, 
Avliich  attains  its  maximum  in  the  extreme  north,  wliere  the 
temperature  is  highest,  but  vdiich  is  everywhere  more  co])ious 
on  the  eastern  than  on  tlie  western  side  of  the  Andes.  AN'ithin 
the  tropics,  the  wide  plains  on  the  cast  are  deluged  by  the 
hcavv  periodical  rains  from  November  to  Mav,  while  the  nar- 
row  margin  between  the  Cordilleras  and  the  Pacitie  is  almost 


278 


INTLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


entiroly  rainlosH.  In  soino  ]>lacos,  tlio  dopositii-n  of  inoistnro 
in  fsui'prisiiif^'ly  ^a-cat ;  for,  uliilo  in  tlio  tropical  rc^doii.s  of  tlm 
New  \V())M  f^'cncriillj  it  iimoniits  to  IVI  iiidios,  on  tlio  north 
coast  of  J)iitc!i  (luiaiia  220  indies  fall  annually  ;  and  in  sonic 
places  on  tlu!  cast  coast  of  I'lazil,  near  tlu;  Eipiator,  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Aiua/on,  no  less  than  270  inches  have  been  ol)scrve(l. 
Tills  astonishin.t;"  (juantity  falls,  niore()vcr,  in  a  comparatively 
brief  period.  Tlie  number  of  clear  days,  ho\vo^(n•,  in  many  por- 
tions of  the  coin>try,  is  much  more  considerable  than  in  our 
tciinpcrato  cliniatus  ;  while,  duriiifj;  the  hni^-conthuied  drought 
that  pi'ecedes  the  wet  season,  tlui  f^ronnd  is  parclu'd,  the  sun 
glares  Avith  intense  radiance,  and  the  cattU;  and  wild  animals, 
tormented  alike  by  lumger  and  thirst,  ])erisli  in  great  numbers. 

"  Thci  climate  and  ])r;)ductions  of  t]n\  michlle  and  southern 
portions  of  South  America,  including  ])olivia,  Paraguay  and 
the  Argentine  l\e[»ublic,  drained  by  tlu^  liio  do  la  Tlata,  art;  of 
a  difl'erent  character  in  many  ])articnlars.  Tlie  southern  plain, 
named  the  P((/iij)<(s,  is  a  d(*ad  levt'l,  destitute  of  trees,  but  cov- 
ered alternately  with  luxuriant  pasturage,  and  vast  crops  of 
gigantic  thistles,  and  interspersed  with  a  multitudo  of  salt 
lakes,  some  of  which  are  of  largo  size. 

"  The  northern  part  of  this  region  l)elongs  to  the  jilain  of 
Gnin  Cliaco,  or  (h'cat  Desert,  which  extends  from  the  iHth  to 
the  28th  south  paralhd,  and  from  longitude  58^  to  03''  west. 
Besides  tiie  north  of  La  Plata,  it  embraces  a  largi>  section  of 
eastern  Bolivia,  l)eiiig  l)ouiided  on  the  east  by  the  I'araguay, 
and  traversed  by  its  tributaries.  It  has  an  average  elevation 
of  from  Ijni)  to  500  feet;  the  northern  portion  is  covered  with 
grass,  while  tlie  southern,  ecnisisting  of  an  arid  and  desert 
plain,  is  thinly  inhabited  ])_y  roving  Indians.  The  climate  is 
characterized  i>y  great  diversity,  but  is  in  general  hot  and  very 
dr}- — th(i  Patagonian  Andes  on  the  one  side,  and  tlu;  mountains 
of  Brazil  on  the  other,  interce[)ting  the  rain-bearing  winds  from 
the  great  oceans.  At  intervals  of  about  iiftec^n  years  apart,  the 
rains  are  wholly  suspended  in  the  interior  of  tlu;  country,  the 
ground  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  dusty  highwiiy,  and  great 
suti'ering  ensues  from  want  of  food  and  wati'r.  The  Pampas 
are  also  subject  to  violent  hurriciauis,  called  luDiipcros,  accom- 
panied with  terrilic  thunder  and  lightning.  These  carry  so 
much  dust  and  sand  into  the  air  as  to  produce  darkness  at  noon 
as  fur  south  as  Buenos;  Ayres.  The  mean  annual  temperaturo 
ranges  from  58-^  Fahr.  in  the  south  to  I'P  in  the  north  ;  Jan- 
uary, from  ()8^  to  77';  and  July  (the  midiTle  of  winterj,  from 
48-'" to  (58  '  Fahr.  In  general,  the  heat  of  summer  is  not  exces- 
sive, and  the  climate  is  more  salubrious  than  that  oi  other 
countries  equall;;  near  the  tropics." 


CLDUTIC  BOUNDAIIY  OF  SOUTH  A^^:IU('A. 


271) 


:l| 


Tho  moro,  sontliorn  portion  of  South  America,  incliKlin;^  u 
])iirt  of  Chili  and  all  of  I'ata^oniu,  has  a  cool  atiiio.s]>luie, 
raiii^iii^  from  5U-'  to  ilO^  Fahr.,  mean  annual  temperaturo  ; 
while  aloii;^f  the  Straits  of  Ma;^-ellaii,  iu  fi'J  south  Litituile,  the 
elimati!  l)eeomes  intensely  cold  durinjj;  tho  winter  months,  in 
the  southern  henusphere,  of  June,  July  and  Au^'ust.  Ticnxi 
(III  FiKyo^  and  tho  southern  extremity  of  the  eontiui-nt,  termi- 
nating' with  l!iij>i'  Jl'int,  in  'A') '  s(nitli  latitude,  has  a  frij^dd, 
inhospitable  climate. 

Climatic  Boundary  of  South  America. 

South  America,  like  tho  northern  portion  of  tho  continent,  is 
washed  by  two  }j;reat  oceans,  ono  on  tho  east  and  one  (m  tho 
west,  oach  exerrisin<^  j^roat  and  varied  climatic  iniluences.  On 
the  t'liaf,  the  fjjreat  Equatorial  CuitiiENT  of  tho  xVtlantic  strikes 
Capo  St.  llo(iuo  witli  its  warmui;^  inlluonco,  Avhero  it  divicU'S,  a 
portion  llowin^j;  southward  along  the  const  of  13ra;cil,  and  a 
larger  portion  northward  along  the  Guiana  coast  into  tho  Ca- 
ribl)ean  Soa,  and  thence  into  tlu;  CJulf  of  Mexico,  forming  tin; 
Gulf  Stueam  of  tho  N(n-th  Atlantic.  On  tho  ,s(,ii/h-/n,s/,  ihv 
Antarctic  DiiiFT,  or  Humboldt  Current,  strikes  tho  coast  of 
Chili  and  extends  nortliward  along  tho  shores  of  Peru,  toward 
the  Equator,  with  its  cooling  infhience,  crowding  down  tho 
thermometer  in  its  onward  course  ;  when,  iinally,  it  foiius  a 
great  Equatorlxl  Cuiiur.X'i',  crossing  tho  broad  I'acitio  Ocean 
toward  the  Caroline  Islands  ;  foriuing  anotht>r  ocfdn  sln<i)ii  off 
Japan,  that  ultimately  ro-crosses  the  North  Pacilie  Ocean  and 
strikes  tlio  north-west  coast  of  North  America.'^ 

In  a  climatic  point  of  view.  South  America,  extending  through 
sixty-eight  d(>grees  of  latitude,  tho  greater  portion  lying  within 
tho  Ti'opics,  may  ])e  thus  divided  : 

1.  Tho  Tropic'il  portion,  lying  north  oi  the  Eqixator  (extend- 


*  Tho  clinir.tic  inthiriicf  of  flicsc  two  {rvcut  Ocfan  ("urrciitH,  (iw  ininii  and 
the  other  roll/,  wlicu  strikinij,'  tlic  cuast  ol' .South  America,  arc  of  a  most  woiulcr- 
fiil  and  diH'ere'it  (diaractrr — tlie  one  oii  the  •■I'lt  comiiiLr  laden  from  otl'tlie  coaMt 
of  Africa  witlv  \\'arin  water  and  a  moist  atmoS'./here  l)rin.i:'s  dehiirin;,''  rains,  wljich 
clothe;;  the  ('astern  sliore  of  tlie  continent  with  venhire  ;  wliile  the  oni'  on  tiic 
y/'t'.'f/,  with  cold  water  and  a  chillinir  atmosi)liere,  is  unaccomj)anied  l>y  rain  or 
]iereeiitilile  moisture,  other  than  wJiat  falls  in  copious  dews  ali>n;r  th(;  coasts  of 
Chili  and  I'eru.  So  in  iv!>-ard  to  the  continuation  of  this  j^reat  Ocean  current, 
wliich,  after  crossing  the  Pac'iiic,  strikes  tho  American  coast  to  the  far  north  iu 
liussian  and  British  America,  liriniring  a  warm  current  of  air  atid  moisture 
like  unto  tho  (rulf  Slnum  which  strikes  aj^ainst  the  west  coast  of  England. 


^ 


^i 


til 


280 


INFI,UENCE   OF  CLIJUTE. 


iiig  to  12  N.  latitude),  comprisos  tlio  Stiitcs  of  Now  Granada,  or 
Colombia,  Vonozucla,  (luiaiia,  and  the  northern  part  of  13ra^:il. 
Hero  tlio  atmosj^lioi'c,  near  tne  levid  of  the  sea,  varies  from 
82°  to  70°  moan  annual  temperature.  The  ixwipas  and  ele- 
vated Ian  la  ot  New  Granada  and  Venezuela  sustains  human 
life  at  an  altitude  of  1(),()0()  or  12,000  feet  above  the  ocean, 
where  the  temperature  assumes  that  o-f  the  fri^'id  zone.  This 
division,  in  the  extensive  Udnus  and  low  grounds  of  the  eoast 
forms  the  hottest  part  of  the  eonthient,  beinj^-  thinly  inhabited 
by  Europeans  and  their  descendants,  and  native  Indians. 

2.  Tlio  Troplnil  rof:,'ion  lyina;  south  of  the  Equator,  comprises 
the  larger  portion  of  Brazil,  Ecuador,  IJolivia,  Peru,  and  part 
of  Paraguay.  This  division  constitutes  the  largest  half  of 
South  America,  running  through  23.]  degrees  of  latitiulo  and 
47  degrees  of  longitud(>.  Heie  are  found  all  degrees  of  tem- 
perature from  the  E(iuatorial,  82°  Fahr.  to  the  frigid  tempera- 
ture of  i)erpetual  winter  on  the  elevated  peaks  of  the  Andes, 
rising  from  20,()()0  tt)  24,000  feet  in  height. 

3.  The  Stili-Trojiitvl  region,  extending  from  28.!^  to  32°  S. 
latitiide,  embraces  the  southern  portions  of  Brazil,  Paraguay 
and  Btilivia,  having  a  mean  annual  temperature  averaging  from 
60°  to  70°  Fahr.,  near  the  level  of  the  ocean.  This  rich  and 
fertile  section  of  country  is  capable  of  sustaining  a  dense  popu- 
lation, whore  is  to  be  found  a  fertile  soil  and  the  most  luxuriant 
growth  of  valuable  trees  and  other  vegetation,  comprising  a 
great  vari-^ty  of  useful  jilants. 

4.  Tho  Teiiijicrafc  division,  extending  from  32  to  48  S.  lati- 
tude, embraces  Buenos  Ayres,  or  the  Argentine  Confederation, 
Uniguay  and  Chili,  nnd  the  northern  part  of  Patagonia.  This 
most  favored  region  produces  all  the  grasses,  cerials  and  fruits 
peculiar  to  tho  temperate  zone.  Here  are  four  regular  seasons 
of  three  months  ea(;h,  and  in  general  is  favored  with  a  healthy 
ehniate,  where  man  attains  his  highest  development.  Here  the 
climate  varies  from  40°  to  60°  mean  annual  temperature. 

TVliile  the  Northern  Hemisphere  is  blessed  with  a  broad 
stretch  of  country  lying  within  tho  temperate  zone,  the  South- 
ern Hemisphere  is  Hmited  to  a  comparative  small  extent  of 
country,  here  running  through  only  20  degrees  of  longitude, 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.     On  the  line  of  this 


COSTA  RICA— ISTIIMU8  OF  PANAMA. 


281 


zone  goinpj  round  tlio  •^'lolio  in  omLvaooil  tlm  largo  Islmul  of 
New  Zeiiliiiul,  ill  tlio  South  PiiciHc,  Avhieli  is  oiio  of  tlio  most 
favored  portions  of  tlie  eiirtli's  surface. 

5.  The  Cvhl  or  Frujld  Zone,  onibriiciufjj  tlic  Houthern  portion 
of  Soutli  America,  extends  from  48^  to  50^  S.  latitude.  It  ccA- 
piises  the  southern  part  of  Patagonia,  and  the  sterile  peiiinsuJj), 
or  island  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  This  inhospitable  region  is  ui 
part  s[)ars('ly  inhabited  by  Indians  in  a  low  state  of  civilization, 
wliile  northern  Patagonia  is  peopled  by  a  large  and  warlike  race 
of  men.  Hero  the  climate  varies  from  20  ^  to  40  '  nnmn  annual 
temperature,  corresponding  in  many  respects  with  the  climato 
of  Labrador  in  North  America. 

While  (Ireenland  ou  the  north  produces  t/'ihrn/s,  this  r<\giou  is 
celebrated  for  its  (jJd'ii  /-.v,  whore  alone  tlu>y  are  fomid  at  the 
present  day  on  the  continent  of  America.  Another  striking  c(jn- 
trast  is  the  Esquimaux  of  low  stature  (m  the  coast  of  Lidira- 
d(jr,  and  the  stalv/art  Patagouian  race  of  South  America. 

Climate  of  Costa  Rica — Isthmus  of  Panama. 

Tlio  small  state  of  Costa  Piica  is  bounded  on  the  fiouth-caat 
by  New  Granada,  forming  the  north-western  extremity  (jf  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  where  runs  the  boundar}',  from  sea  to  sea, 
between  North  and  South  America.  In  chmate  and  vegetable 
productions  it  possesses  the  same  general  character  as  the 
whole  of  the  Isthmus,  extending  through  seven  degrees  of  lon- 
gitude. Th(^  phy.'-ical  aspect  of  Costa  Jlica  is  very  uneven, 
])rescnting  extensive  valleys,  table-lands  and  mountains  ;  and 
the  face  of  the  country  is  at  various  levels  aljove  the  ocean, 
which,  according  to  their  height,  have  here,  as  in  all  other  parts 
of  Central  and  South  America,  dili'erent  tein])(!ratures  and  pro- 
ductions. Between  the  foot  of  the  mountains  and  tlie  shores 
of  the  two  seas,  the  surface  is  low  and  flat. 

The  i')rincipal  productions  of  Costa  Eica  are  dye-woods, 
drugs,  grain,  fruits,  indigo,  iol.vacco,  cocoa  and  coll'ee.  The 
wild  and  white  sugar-cane,  and  that  of  the  species  called  hiroto, 
Vv^hicih,  spread  out,  forms  strong  planks,  are  abundant.  Coffee 
is  the  staple  export ;  and  Avhen  properly  plucked  and  dried, 
resembles  that  of  Mocha. 

"  The  chmate  of  Costa  Eica  is  as  varied  as  its  aspect.  In 
the  principal  inhabited  places  it  may  bo  asserted  that  the  cli- 
mate is  the  finest  in  the  known  world — no  extremes  of  heat  or 
cold.  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  usually  varies  between  50-" 
and  80^  Fahr. ;  but  the   thermometer   ranges   through   every 


f 


I 


'282 


INFLUENCE   OF  CIJMATF,. 


(Icp^'eo  of  tlio  sciilo,  from  tlu!  iwoy.'iw^  ])()iiit  to  lOC^,  in  ]iro])oi'^ 
tiou  to  tlic  oUiViitioii  iihovt!  tlio  level  of  tlu;  wea.  At  many 
l)lac'os  a  short  distance  iVtun  C!artlia<^e,  and  in  otluiV  ])ai'ts,  tlu! 
cold  is  so  int(3nso  that  it  lVei[uentl}lia])])ens  that  I'unnin^' waters 
ji^  f(mnd  froxen  in  the  morning' ;  and  the  iu]ia])iiants  of  Car- 
tha|j;e  and  San  Jos(''  enjoy  tlu>  Inxnry  of  ice  ;  so  that  tlu;  terri- 
tory of  Costa  liica  can  ])roduee  all  the  fruits  and  ])rodm;tions 
of  every  climate  in  tlu;  world."  {/uir  Full  (_>/'  J'ntn  (did  Tcmjxf- 
ulai'c,  see  pa<i;es  251,  'loo.) 

Climate  and  Physical  Features  of  New  Granada. 

Th(!  rie])ul)lie  of  New  Clranaala,  or  Colombia,  (>ml)racin,^•  the 
northern  ])ortion  of  South  America,  includin*^-  the  Isthmus  of 
Pauanni,  is  Ijoundiul  on  th(!  north  and  east  by  tho.  Caril)l)ean 
Sea,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacilic;  Ocean  ;  extendin*;'  lVt)m  the 
]^t[uator  to  12  20'  N.  latitude.  This  c(juntry  is  tlm  ]iiost  e([ually 
diversitied  in  soil  and  climate  of  all  the  Scmth  American  Stat(>s. 
Neither  plain  or  moiaitain  can  ]h\  said  to  predominate  ;  the 
sea-coasts  are  amplt^  and  commodious,  and,  owinj^'  to  the  wide 
ramitication  of  the  Andes,  there  is  a  {.';reat  extent  of  country  a.t 
an  elevati(m  of  from  5,000  to  10,000  fiu't,  which,  in  such  a  lati- 
tude, is  most  i'avoral)le  to  industry  ami  tlu;  ])ro;4"ress  of  civiliza- 
tion. Yet  tl>e  insalulnity  of  the  zone  surrounding  this  hi<j;hiy 
favored  re<^ion  has  hitherto  counterbalanced  its  a])parcnt  advan- 
tages, and  prevented  the  development  of  its  varied  and  alnui- 
dant  resources. 

Th(!  climate  of  New  Granada  ])resents  the  most  remarkable 
contrasts  of  almost  any  ])ortion  of  tlu;  New  World.  At  Honda, 
nearly  1,000  h.'ct  aljove  the  sea  h'vel,  it  is  intc^nsely  hot  and  un- 
liealtliy.  Tlie  yellow  fever  is  endemic  at  Cartagena  and  on  the 
v/cst  coasts.  ]Jut  in  the  elevated  country,  ilw.  air  is  perfectly 
salubrious  and  the  tem])erature  (from  5()  to  70  '  Fahr.)  seems 
that  of  j)erpetual  spring.  Here  the  "  uns  in  tlu^  wet  season 
darken  the  sky  only  a  few  hours  daily  in  the  afternorm.  At 
Mompox,  the  day  is  always  cloiidy,  tlu^  night  clear.  'J'he  summits 
of  the  Cordilleras  are  often  shr'tuded  in  mists  ;  t(U'ren<s  of  rain 
fall  almost  unceasingly  in  the  forests  of  Darieu  ;  tlni  (iulf  of 
Chocho  is  i)erpetually  vexed  with  violent  stoi'ms  ;  but  these 
excesses  (>f  tht3  elements  are  all  unknov.ii  in  the  middle  regions 
or  Tem])la(las,  and,  excepting  the  earth([uakes,  whicli  have  leiL 
here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  Andes,  de(>p  traces  of  their  destrue- 
tiv(!  visitations,  there  is  nothing  which  d(>tracts  from  the  gene- 
ral benignityof  nature.  Even  uj)  to  the  limits  of  ])eriietual  con- 
gelation the  climate  continues  healtln',  though  it  may  cease  to 
be  agreoabk;. 

The  remarkable  equality  of  the  climate  in  ihis  part  of  tho 


CLIMATE   AM)   PPiODUC'TIONS   OF  YI'-nEZTTCLA. 


283 


•world,  uIktc!  tlio  soas'oiis  diffcv  liltlf  from  cacli  ollior,  Rcoiiirt 
iuif;ivor;il)lo  to  tUr.  iiuiltiplic.'iliou  of  vcj^a'tublt' s|»iH'i('S.  \y,irh 
kind  Hoizcs  oil  some  locality  or  rc^'ioii  ^vh(>roiii  it  j)n'd()minatos 
to  tlio  almost  total  exclusion  of  others.  On  tlio  plains  of  ]3o- 
{^ota,  in  the.  region  of  ])ei'{)t'tual  spriii^^  though  vei^etatioii  is 
most  1uxuri:ait,  tlu^  species  an*  not  mniierous.  Yist  the  woods, 
ini])erfectly  ex])lored,  teem  Avitli  vuhial  le  ])roductions.  Tlie 
■wax  palm,  'JOO  feet  lii};li,  clothes  the  sidt%s  of  Tolima,  to  an  ele- 
vation of  iS,(H)()  fi'et.  'riui  forests  of  Popajaii  yielil  china  or 
einch(ma  (the  cascarilla  or  Jesuits  bark  of  eomnuu'ce)  in  abun- 
dances. Cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  cocoa,  sugar-cane,  with  all  tropi- 
cal fruits,  are  among  the-  productions  of  the  coast  ;  uhile  tlu) 
eh^vated  ])lains  yield  niaixe,  wheat,  and  all  the  cereals  and  fruits 
of  Europe.  AVilh  nature  so  bountiful,  the  wants  of  the  i)oj)nla- 
tion  so  few,  and  tln^  demands  of  commei'ce  very  moderate,  the 
eiiltisation  of  tlu;  soil  is  carri(>d  on,  as  might  bi;  t'xpected,  very 
remissly,  and  tins  reclaimed  land  bears  [)ut  a  small  ]»i'oi)ortiou 
tt)  the  whoh\  Jn  the  llanos,  towaids  tlus  Orinoco,  tht^  peo]'Ie 
are  occu[)ied  wholly  with  tlu^  rearing  of  cattle  and  horses. 

Climate,  Productions  and  Physical  Features  of  Venezuela. 

This  llepublic,  occu])ying  the  north-east  poi'lion  of  South 
America,  lies  ])etween  IS.  latituchs  1  H'  and  12  Id',  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Oaribb(>an  Si'a,  and  forms  the  hotti'st  portion 
of  tlui  iVnuuican  Continent.  The  mountains  hold  ;i  secondary 
imjxn'tani'e,  and  occupy  but  a  thiiil  of  tin;  wlioh;  territory. 
T1r>  plains  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Maracaibo,  have  hut  a  moih;- 
vido.  elevation,  raridy  exci'eding  ■[,{)[){)  feet,  and  nro.  nowlure 
cultivated  to  any  considerable  cixtent.  Thick  forests  uhicli 
covta*  the  whole  territory  shelter  immerons  independent  Indian 
tribes.  Tilts  /Kintiitos,  or  sunnnit-])lains,  have  gent'i'ally  an  ele- 
vation of  10,000  or  l'J,000  feet.  Where  cultivation  has  obtained 
a  footing  on  tlas  sloj;es  of  the  monntains,  it  succeeds  to  a  height 
of  8,000  or  0,000  feet,  the  line  which  se])arates  the  cereal  cnjps 
of  tem])erate  climates,  wheat,  ])arlev,  etc.  ;  from  tropical  ])ro- 
ductions,  niai/e,  cocoa,  cotl'ee,  the  yuca,  etc.,  being  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  about  1,000  feet. 

"  The  JjhntoH,  or  plains  of  Veiie/uela,  are  of  vast  exttnil, 
having  an  area  of  over  100,000  square  miles.  They  iwo  gene- 
rally destitute  of  treses,  which,  in  the  most  faveu'ed  sjjots,  occur 
only  in  small  clusters.  In  the  dry  season,  the  greater  ])art  of 
the  llanos  presents  to  the  view  a  bare  sunburnt  desert  with 
intense!  heat.  IJut  no  sooner  does  the  rain  fall — and  it  ])ours 
down  Avith  tins  violence  peculiar  to  the  trojiics — then  thts  sce-ne 
changiis  totall}'  ;  vegetation  s})rings  fortli  and  spnsads  itself 
abroad  Avith  surprising  ra[)idity  ;  the  aritl  waste  becomes  a  rich 


281 


INTLUENCE  OF  CLBLVTE. 


garden,  tho  nioistenod  earth  seems  to  heave  and  open,  and 
fortli  comes  the  crocodile  and  l)oa-constrictor,  shakin<<  oft'  their 
letharfjy,  and  releasing  themselves  from  their  temporary  im- 
prison}iient ;  tho  streams  and  rivers  beinj,'  quickly  flooded. 

"■  Tlie  great  river  of  Venezuela  is  the  OiUNTtco,  flowing  into 
tho  Atlantic,  Avhicli  holds  the  third  rank  among  the  gi-eat 
rivers  of  South  America.  The  exuberantly  fertile  valley  of  this 
noM'.  river,  into  which  flow  a])Ove  ;}!)()  other  rivers  reputed 
navigable,  watering  a  territory  of  150,(100  square  miles,  otters 
to  advancing  civilization  all  the  natural  conditions  of  an  oi)u- 
lent  and  populous  state. 

"  Tho  climate  of  Venezuela  exhibits  in  tho  highest  degree 
the  ccpiatorial  character.  The  change  of  seasons  is  scarcely 
perceptible,  and  vegetation  goes  on  per])etuallv.  On  the  coast, 
the  thermometer  ranges  from  MO'  to  Ho'-'  Fahrenheit  the  year 
round.  But,  notv.ithstanding  the  continucms  heat  that  ])revails 
along  the  coast,  epidemic  diseases  are  rare,  and  the  climate  is 
conq)aratively  healthy.  To  those  unacclinnited,  however,  a 
due  amount  of  care  is  necessary,  as  a  tor  great  exposure  and 
inattention  to  diet  are  oft^n  followed  by  violent  fevers.  The 
table-land  bordering  the  coast  has  an  almost  uniform  range  of 
temperature  throughout  the  year,  the  thermometer  varying 
only  about  ten  degrees,  from  70-  to  S2  '.  In  the  llanos,  espe- 
cially those  portions  subject  to  inundation,  the  climate  is  not 
very  ralubrious."' 

Climate  and  Surface  of  Guiana. 

This  portion  of  South  America,  lying  between  the  parallels 
of  1"  and  0-20'  N.  latitude,  is  known  as  liritish  Guiana,  Dutch 
Guiana  and  French  Guiana,  eom})rising  altogether  an  area  of 
1-12, 000  square  miles,  avHIi  a  po])uiation  of  about  400,001).  The 
maritime  region  is  low  and  level,  but  very  fertile  and  hot.  The 
country  ris(^s  in  successive  terraces  to  the  Sierra  of  Acaria, 
which  se}>arates  it  from  Brazil,  where  the  temperature  becomes 
less  heated. 

The  ''limate  is  tropical,  but  more  genial  than  that  of  most 
places  in  the  torrid  zone,  owing  to  the  trade  wiads  from  the 
Atlantic,  the  sea  and  land  breezes,  and  tlie  frequent  rains.  It 
has  two  Avet  and  dry  seasons  on  the  coasts,  each  continuing  for 
three  months  ;  but  in  the  interior,  there  is  onlv  one  rainy  sea- 
son,  from  April  to  the  midtUe  of  Aiigust.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture of  the  year  is  81^  Falir.  Violent  thundi'r-stornis  occur  at 
the  change  of  the  seasons  ;  but  hurricanes  ho  destructive  in  the 
West  Lidies  are  unknown.  Yellow  fever  and  other  malignant 
diseases  occur  periodically,  Ijeing  ver}-  fatal  to  the  Avhite  po]>u- 
latiou. 


I 


CLBLVTE  OF  BRAZIL. 


285 


Tlie  vegetable  kiuf^uloui  is  of  the  most  magnificent  descrip- 
tiou.  2\jiioug  cultivated  ])lants  the  sngur-caiie  IioUIh  the  high- 
est rank,  its  cultivation  liaving  largely  suY)erseded  the  cotton 
and  coiltH^  fonnevly  grown.  The  fauna  resembles  that  of  the 
vallev  of  the  Amazon. 


Climate,  Topography  and  Pioduction.s  c'  Bra-zil. 

This  extensive  empire  comprehends  the  eastern  and  a  large 
part  of  the  central  ])ortion  of  South  America,  extending  from 
4'  North,  to  that  of  'S-i  i)()'  South  latitude.  The  name  of  ]Ji;azil, 
— which  was  for  a  long  lime  restricted  to  a  narrow  though  long 
extended  portion  of  the  American  coast,  extending  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon,  under  the  Equator,  nearly  to  that  of  the 
La  Plata,  is  now  used  to  designate  all  the  former  possessions 
of  the  Portuguese  in  this  quarter  of  the  globe,  compreht  nding 
most  of  the  valley  of  the  Amazon,  including  the  vast  region  be- 
tween the  sea  and  the  mountains — the  greater  part  of  the  inte- 
rior country  beinor  formerlv  called  Amazonia — and  the  cxten- 
sive  territory  to  the  north  of  the  Maranou,  called  Portuguese 
Guiana.     Estimated  Area,  2,500,000  square  miles. 

When  first  discovered  by  Cabral,  it  was  denominat<Hl  I)y  him 
7crm  (/('  Santa  Cnt::,  or  "  the  Land  of  the  Holy  Cross."'  But 
this  api)ellatiou  was  soon  .superseded  by  its  present  name, 
derived  from  Brc.::",  a  valuable  specie.-i  of  wood  with  Avhich  this 
country  abounds.  Other  useful  varieties  of  hard  wood  grow^ 
in  the  Amazonian  fort^sts,  numbering  upwards  of  two  hundred 
different  hinds,  being  suitable  for  building  pur})oscs,  ship  build- 
ing and  fancy  work  ;  medicinal  plants,  tloweriug  plants  and 
fruit-bearing  trees  are  also  abundant. 

Yaij.ky  of  the  Amazon. — Tlie  excessive  hot  temperature  of 
the  Valley  of  the  Amazon,  ranging  from  70'  to  100°  Fahi., 
with  at  times  deluging  rains  and  alternate  dry  i^.oasons,  in  the 
interior  of  the  country  on  the  Ihnios  or  plains,  renders  this  por- 
tion of  Brazil,  lying  near  the  Et|iu\tor,  say  from  10^  North  to 
10'^  South,  altogether  too  hot  for  the  Nov'^h  American  or  Euro- 
pean race  of  men  used  to  the  temperate  climate.  This  ()l)jec- 
tion  to  the  Equatorial  rt>gion,  however,  is  greatly  modified  on 
ascending  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Amazon,  and  its  tributa- 
ries, to  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  where  the  country  rises  gradually 


\i 


286 


DTFLUEXCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


m 


to  au  olevation  of  several  thousand  foot,  afforduif^,  at  different 
altitudes,  all  the  climates  of  the  sub-tropical,  temperate  and 
cold  zones. 

IliVERs. — Brazil  is  watered  by  a  profusion  of  great  rivers. 
The  chief  of  these  is  the  mighty  and  majestic-  Marafion  or  Ama- 
zon. On  the  side  of  Guiana,  tlie  Amazon  is  a  Ih-azilian  river 
for  1,200  miles  direct  distance  from  Ca])o  N(n'tli  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Yapuro  ;  on  the  south  side,  from  Belem  to  Tapatinga,  a 
distance  of  1,GU()  miles  direct,  it  Hows  through  the  liraziliau 
territory.  The  immense  tributary  streams  which  (m  both  sides 
fall  into  the  Amazon,  and  intersect  the  interior  of  Brazil  in 
every  direction,  A\]ieu  opened  up  I)}-  steam  navigation,  will  give 
to  a  great  ])art  of  tlu^  interior  of  IJrazil  all  the  advantagt>s  of  a 
maritime  shore.  The  lower  jiart  of  the  Eio  Negro,  and  the 
whole  course  of  its  great  alliuent,  the  Parana,  belong  to  lirazil ; 
also  all  the  streams  which  join  the  Annizcm,  on  the  left  l)auk, 
from  the  moutli  of  the  Bio  Negro  downwards.  On  the  right  or 
south  bank  of  the  Amazon,  tiie  Yatay,  the  TeiV',  the  hnver  part 
of  the  Burns,  the  Madeira  from  about  tlu>  parallel  of  10  ^  north, 
and  its  atiluent  the  Ciiiapore,  and  the  whole  water-system  of  the 
Topayos,  Xingu  and  Tocantins,  Itelong  to  Brazil.  Proceeding 
southwards  along  the  coast,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Para,  or 
estuary  of  the  Tocantins,  v.e  have  tla^  (rnrui\y,  tlie  Maracas- 
same,  the  Turiassu,  tlie  Maranham,  the  Barnahyba,  the  Camu- 
cim,  the  Jajuaribe,  the  Capibaribe,  the  Umia,  the  great  Bio 
San  Francisco,  the  Beruaguassu,  the  Bio  Contas,  the  Ilheos, 
the  Bio-Clrande-do-Belmonte,  the  Bio  Doce,  the  Parahyba,  and 
a  nmltitude  of  minor  streams,  and  ailhu^nts,  liowing  into  the 
Atlantic.  To  the  south  of  the  parallel  of  20'  south,  the  rivers 
of  Brazil  mostly  belong  t't  the  water-system  of  the  Parana, 
whicli  is  wholly  a  Brazihan  river  to  within  1"  of  the  Stropu  ; 
and  throughout  a  large  portion  of  the  renuviiid(>r  of  its  course, 
form  the  common  boundary  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay.  The 
headstreams  of  the  Paraguay,  descending  from  this  Serra  Pa- 
rcels, iikcAviso  belong  to  Brazil;  and  the  tributary  stream  of 
the  Cuiaba,  or  Cluyaba,  a  large  river,  almost  ecpial  in  size  to  tho 
Paraguay,  which  it  jonis  in  17  ."57'  south.  The  sources  of  tho 
Paraguay  approach  within  a  few  miles  of  those  of  the  Xingu 
and  Araguaya  ;  and  in  many  places,  owing  to  tho  eontiguratiou 
of  tlie  grcmnd,  th(^  tributury  rivers  of  the  Am.'izon  and  the  La 
Plata  seem  as  if  their  respective  head-streams  inosculated. 

Climate. — In  such  an  extensive  region  as  Brazil,  both  the 
climate  and  soil  nuist  necessarily  vary  greatly  accordiijg  to  tho 
locality.     Tho  chmatc  nuiy,  however,  bo  generally  charactci- 


CLIMATE   OF  BRAZIL. 


287 


izod  as  mild  and  vo.milar.  In  tlic  vicinity  of  the  Ania/on,  and 
iu  tlio  northern  parts,  great  troi)ical  heats  prevail ;  but  these 
are  tempered  by  the  excessive  humidity  of  tiie  atmosj)here,  and 
tlie  copious  dews.  TIk^  j^a-eat  aUuvial  jjlains  in  the  north-west 
and  Avest,  V'eing  inundated  for  several  months  in  the;  y(>ar,  are 
exceedingly  uuhealtliy.  The  following  is  a  rnnnniary  of  ther- 
mometrical  observations  made  in  the  capital  and  the  four  north- 
ern cities  of  Brazil  : 


, — Av 

■nif!:'. — , 

S.  Lntitiiili'. 

W.    liiillLT. 

M 

•nil  TiT.i] 

..       MilX. 

Mill. 

Kio,   . 

.     22^  (V 

42  50' 

7-P 

82^ 

(>7 

Bahia, 

.    i:{^  0' 

;is^^j2' 

80^ 

8G^ 

W 

P(U-nambueo, 

.       H     (')' 

.'Jo  Ol' 

80^ 

8(5^ 

7(P 

Marauham, 

.     2  :jl' 

•U  1(V 

81^ 

80^ 

7(i^ 

Para, 

.      1  21' 

4S-2S' 

82'^ 

1)3' 

75^ 

In  the  southern  parts,  the  climate  is  more  mild  and  tem])er- 
ate,  and  frecjuently  even  cold,  Fahrenheit's  thermometcu'  some- 
times falling  below  -iO^  This  takes  place,  es])ccially  in  ascend- 
ing towards  the  sources  of  the  great  rivers,  where  the  elevation 
of  the  ground  modifies  the  temperature  ;  and  within  the  lofty 
plains  which  s])n'ad  out  into  the  interior,  fertile  valleys  occur 
Aviiich  are  both  salubrious  and  temperate,  and  in  which  all  the 
fruits  of  Europc>  grow  to  niaturity,  along  with  the  native  pro- 
ductions of  America.  Of  this  climat(^  are  the  inland  provinces 
of  Miuas-Geraes,  Villa-Eica,  Sau-raulo,  (ioyaz  and  Mato- 
Grosso.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  central  iabl.'-land  of 
Brazil  is  from  8^  to  10'  lower  than  that  of  the  low  districts  on 
the  coast.  The  west  wind,  2)assing  over  vast  marshy  fon^sts,  is 
frecpiently  found  to  be  unhealthy  iu  the  interior  parts.  TIicsi* 
unhealthy  blasts,  however,  are  corrected  l)y  th(^  inliuence  of  the 
atmospheric  plants  which  al)Ound  in  the  woods,  and  which  till 
the  air  with  a  fragrance  pert-eived  at  seviral  leagues  froii) 
shore  when  the  wind  blows  from  the  land.  Ovi'r  all  Ik'azil, 
December,  January  and  Febiuary  avo  the  hottest  months  ; 
June,  July  and  August  the  coolest.  The  rains  commence  hi 
March  and  continue  until  May,  with  intervals.  During  part  of 
June  and  July  a  cessation  of  wet  W(.>ather  frequently  takes 
place,  and  is  called  rcronicc,  the  short  summer.  The  rains 
resume  in  August,  and  contiraie,  with  short  intervals,  until  Sep- 
tember. During  the  hot  months,  there  is  ahhost  constant  dry 
Aveather  ;  and  under  the  influence  of  the  dry  and  ])arching 
])lasts,  vegetation  languishes,  and  on  the  higher  and  more  ex- 
posed parts  appears  Imriit  up  and  withered.  In  the  northern 
provinces  of  Ceara,  rt^rnambuco,  and  ntighborhood,  sonictimes 
no  rain  falls  for  two  or  three  years  together,  when  the  conse- 
queuces  are  most  disastrous.     A  famine  ensues ;  cattle  die  o£ 


288 


TNTLUKNCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


tip 


^^'t 


thirst ;  ami  tlio  Avietchod  mlia])itants  msli  to  tlio  sca-coiiHt,  dy- 
iu<,'  iu  liuudivds  l)y  ihv  wixy.  TIk;  .S(u-bioozi>,  ■which  ushers  in  tho 
rainy  s((asun,  refreshes  tho  atmosphere,  and  rcaninuitcs  vej^eta- 
tion.  Tlie  south-east  trade-Avinds  SAveep  the  Avhole  coast,  and 
arrive  toleraldy  cooled  doun  l)y  their  passa^^'e  from  the  hurniuf^ 
coast  of  Africa  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Athmtic.  This  ten- 
dency to  east  winds  receives,  however,  very  re^ailar  nioditica- 
tions  from  the  sun's  ])ro;^'ress  iu  the  eclijjtic  ;  a  monsocm  set- 
ting dov>n  the  coast  from  Si'])teni1)er  to  April,  and  in  the  con- 
trary direction  the  other  lialf  of  the  year.  The  heaviness  of 
the  rains  can  only  be  imagined  l)y  those  who  have  been  in  such 
latitudes. 

A^KGETATION. — The  interior  of  r>ra/d,  Avith  tiie  exception  of  tlie 
Campos  Parecis,  and  ta])le-land  already  mentioned,  forms  a 
%ast  and  impenetrable  forest,  the  trees  of  -which  are  closely 
interwoven  Avith  l)ruslnvood,  and  with  innumerablt;  shrubs  inn\ 
creeping  plants,  Avhich  clhig  round  them  to  their  summits,  and 
being  genernlly  adorned  with  the  most  beautiful  flowers,  give  a 
peculiarly  rich  appearance  to  the  sccmcry.  These  i)lants,  after 
encircling  the  tree  to  the  top,  frecpiently  grow  downwards,  iind 
taking  root  iu  the  ground  remount  anew  ;  so  that  the  whole 
forest  becomes  laced  together,  and  is  rendt^red  quite  impene- 
trable. Luccock  descril)es  the  various  tints  of  a  Brazilian 
forest  as  extending  from  a  light  yellow-green  to  one  bortlering 
on  blue  ;  and  these  mingled  again  with  red,  brown,  and  a  grada- 
tion of  ileeper  shades  almost  to  black.  Tho  forests  of  Erazd 
abound  in  varieties  of  useful  and  ornamental  wood.  One  spi'- 
cies,  called  the  sijipijiira,  resembles  the  teak  of  India.  The 
pcroha,  omnhii  and  hnro  resemble  the  oak  and  the  larch.  The 
riidiiilicd,  "  amarcllo  venatico,"  yit'lds  large  broad  planks  for 
flooring  and  cabinet-work,  like  nudiogany.  There  are,  besides, 
many  lighter  species  of  wood,  similar  to  llr,  besides  log-wood, 
mahogany,  and  an  intinit}'  of  ornamental  and  dyeing  woods. 
Of  the  palm  tree,  neaily  a  hundred  s})ecies  are  known  and  de- 
scribed as  natives  of  Brazil ;  and  amongst  thorn  that  celebrated 
species,  the  long  serrated  lancet-formed  leaves  of  Avhich  are 
cor.iposed  of  innumcra])lo  fibres,  which  rival  silk  in  strength 
and  tinenes.s  ;  and  are  used  for  fishing-lines,  and  (-ometimes 
converted  into  bridles.  The  ]>razilian  cocoa  tree  is  thicker  and 
more  elevated  than  that  found  in  the  West  Indies.  The  Bra- 
zilian myrtle  is  distinguished  by  the  shining  of  its  bark.  The 
ibiripitamja,  or  Brazil-wood  tree — called  in  Pernambuco,  the 
pao  (hi,  Tdinlia  or  "  Queen's  wood,"  on  acco;mt  of  its  being  a 
government  monopoly — is  now  more  rarely  to  be  seen  on  the 
coast,  owing  to  the  improvident  manner  in  which  it  has  been 


VEGETATION  IN  BR.VZIL. 


28!) 


cut  down.  It  grows  cliioily  in  the  uortlicni  i)vovincoa.  It  is 
not  a  lofty  treo  ;  at  a  short  distance  from  the  <,'round,  inini- 
merablo  branches  spring  forth  in  every  direction,  in  a  slraj^- 
gling,  irrc<^uhir  manner  ;  the  h*aves  are  small  and  not  luxuri.int ; 
the  Avood  is  very  hard  and  lieavy,  takes  a  liii^h  ])olisli,  and  sinks 
in  water  ;  the  only  valual)le  portion  of  it  is  the  lu'art,  as  the 
outward  coat  of  wood  has  not  any  peculiarity.  The  name  of 
this  wood  is  deriv(-d  from  hrti'oi.s  or  In'trjiK,  a  "  <^lowin,ii;  lire,"  or 
'■  coal ;"  its  botanical  name  is  C  fsitljuitUi  lirasHi  tlo.  The  lea\('S 
are  ]»inuated  ;  the  llowers  ai'(;  white,  and  papilionacetnui,  grow- 
in,^  in  a  pyramidal  spike.  Oiw.  si)ecies  has  lloAvers  variegated 
with  red.  "  Almost  every  one  of  tlu\so  sovereigns  of  the  forest,"' 
says  Von  Spix,  "  is  distinguished,  in  the  total  ell'ect  of  the  i)ic- 
ture,  from  its  neighbor.  While  the  silk-cotton  treo  {Bombn:.- 
poifotdr/mn,  partly  armed  with  strong  thorns,  Ix'gins  at  a  ccni- 
siderable  height  from  the  ground  to  s[)read  out  its  thick  arms, 
and  its  digitated  leaves  arc  grouped  in  light  and  aiiy  masses, 
the  luxuriant  lecythis  and  the  liraziliau  anda  shoot  out  at  a 
l(!ss  height  many  branches  profusi-ly  covirod  with  leaves,  Avhich 
unite  to  form  a  verdant  arcade.  The  jaracaiida  (rose-Avood 
treo)  attracts  the  eye  by  the  lightness  of  its  double-feathered 
leaves  :  the  largo  gold-colored  llower  of  this  tree  ;ind  the  ipi' 
{Bi'piojiia  (■/(!■  i/.s(iul/i(i),  dazzle  by  their  splendor,  contrastetl  Avith 
the  dark  green  of  the  foliage.  The  spondias  {S.  iii>/>'oliiihi!<(i.s), 
arches  its  pennatcd  leaves  into  light  oblong  forms.  A  very 
])eculiar  and  most  striking  cfi'ect  in  the  ])icture  is  produced  by 
tlio  trumpet  tree  {So'ivpiif  j/cIIuIk)  among  the  other  lofty  forms  of 
the  forest :  the  smooth  ash-gi'ey  stems  nao  slightly  bending  to 
a  considerable  lu'ight,  and  spread  out  at  tlie  top  into  verticil- 
late  branches,  Avhicli  have  at  the  extremities  large  tufts  of 
deeply  lobatcd  wliite  loaves.  The  lloweriiig  ea\sid))iua  ;  the 
tiiry  laurel ;  the  lofty  geoflVea  ;  the  soap  trees  Avith  their  shining 
leaves  ;  the  slender  IJarbadoes  cedar  ;  the  ormosia  with  its 
poimated  leaves  ;  the  ta})ia  or  garlic  pear  tree,  so  called  from 
the'  strong  smell  of  its  bark  ;  the  niaina  ;  and  a  thousand  not 
yet  described  trees  are  mingled  confusedly  together,  forming 
groups  agreeably  conlrast(,(l  by  the  diviTsity  of  their  forms  and 
tints.  Here  and  there,  the  dark  crown  of  a  Chilian  fir  {.infu- 
caria  viiliriruld),  among  the  lighten*  green,  a[)])ears  like  a  stran- 
ger amitl  the  natives  of  the  tropics  ;  while  the  towering  str'ius 
of  the  palms  Avith  their  Avaving  crowns  are  an  incom[)arid)le 
ornament  of  the  forests,  the  beauty  and  majesty  of  Avhich  no 
language  can  describe.  If  the  eye  turns  to  the  more  iuimble 
and  lower  which  clothe  the  ground  with  a  rich  verdure,  it  is 
-leliglited  Avith  the  splendor  and  gay  variety  of  the  llowers. 
The  purple  blossoms  of  the  rhexia  ;  profuse  clusters  of  the  me- 


1':   ! 


290 


lOTLUENCE   OF  (LLMATE. 


lastoma,  myrtles  juul  ilio  on^^'cnia  ;  tlui  Jt'licatc  f()liafj;c  of  many 
ruliiiicou!  and  ardisi;!-,  tliciv  pretty  flowcMs  lilciukHlAvitli  tlio  siu- 
l^'ulavly  I'oriiKHl  Icavi'S  of  tlir  thcopvasta  ;  tlic  concoc^iirpus ;  tlio 
rectl-lilco  (Iwirf  palms  ;  the  brilliant  si)a(lix  of  the  costus  ;  the 
raf^,c^('(l  lu'di^vs  of  iUo  maranta,  iron;  ■which  a  S(iuamons  I'cru 
rises;  the  maj^niliccnt  stit'tia,  thorny  solana,  lav^c  llowerin^ 
i^ai'denias  ami  coutercas,  enlivened  •with  j^'arlands  of  niikonia 
and  l)i,i!;nonia  ;  the  far-spi'eadin,tf  slionts  of  the  nielliih;  nis  paul- 
linias,  delet'hampias,  and  the  hanhinea  with  its  stranp;ely  lo- 
bated  leaves  ;  strings  of  the  leafless  milky  li'tiici  (bind-Avecd), 
^vhi(•ll  descend  from  the  luLilu'st  summits  of  the  trc(>s,  or  closelv 
twine  rcmnd  the  stroi'.fi;c>st  trunks,  and  };radnally  kill  them  ; 
lastly,  those  parasitical  ])lants  h\  which  old  tree^;  are  invested 
Avith  the  f>;armont  of  youth,  the  j^jrotesquo  species  of  the  pothoy, 
and  the  arum,  the  su[)erl)  llowc  rs  of  the  orchidea',  the  brome- 
lias  which  catch  the  rain  water,  the  tillandsia,  hanginjj;  down 
like  Lichi')}.  pnhnoniirl'is,  and  a  nudti])licity  of  stranjjjely  formed 
l\>rns  :  all  these  admiral)le  jiroductioiis  combine  to  f(n'ni  a  sceno 
which  alternately  tills  the  Euro[)ean  naturalist  with  deli^'ht  and 
astonishment."  Amou'^  the  products  peculiar  to  tlu^  Amazonian 
forests  is  the  catnitchoue  tree;,  Siplnjnid  cliislira,  which  {^'rows  iu 
•••eneral  to  th(>  hemht  of  fortv  or  tiftv  fei't  without  branclu^s  ;  then 

O  Oil 

brauchinj.;;,  runs  up  fifteen  feet  hi,^h(>r,  with  a  thick  and  i;lo  sy 
foliage.  The  leaf  is  about  six  inches  long,  thin,  and  shaped 
like  that  of  a  peach  tre(\  The  juice  of  the  caoutchouc  is  some- 
times used  as  milk,  and  the  negroes  and  Indians  who  Avork 
Avith  it,  are  said  to  be  fond  of  drinking  it.  Tlu'  alioriginal  uamo 
of  this  substance  Av:is  cajiiK-hu,  the  promniciation  of  Avhich  is 
nearly  pi'escrved  in  the  Avord  caoutchouc.  At  Par;i  it  is  uoav 
gem'rally  calhnl  lioi'ra-;'i".  On  the  slightest  incision  the  gum 
exudes,  having  at  first  the  a|)peariinco  of  thick  yelloAV  cream. 
The  trees  are  generaily  ta[)i)eil  in  tlu^  morning,  and  aboiit  a 
gill  of  the  fluid  is  collected  from  one  incision  iu  the  course  of 
the  day.  It  is  caught  iu  small  cups  of  clay,  moulded  for  the 
purpose  Avith  the  hand.  These  are  enrptieil,  Avhen  full,  into  a 
jar.  No  sooner  is  this  gum  collected,  than  it  is  ready  for  imme- 
diate use.  Forms  of  various  kinds,  representing  shoes,  bottles, 
toys,  etc.,  are  in  readiness,  unide  of  clay.  AN'hen  shocks  arc 
manufactured,  it  is  a  matter  of  economy  to  have  Avooden  lasts. 
These  are  first  coated  with  clay,  so  as  to  be  easily  Avithdrawn. 
A  handle  is  alKxed  to  the  last  foi'  the  couA'cnience  of  Avorking. 
The  Huid  is  poured  over  the  fnrm,  and  a  thin  coating  innne- 
diately  adheres  to  tht;  clay.  The  next  movement  is  to  expose 
the  gum  to  the  action  of  smoke.  The  substaui'e  ignited  for 
this  })urposo  is  tlic  fruit  of  the  irassai.'  palm.  This  fumigation 
serves  tlie  dcjuble  i)iu'pose  of  drying  the  gum,  Jind  of  giving  it 


avo 


AOmCULTURAL  IT.ODUCTIONS. 


291 


a  (lavkor  color.  AYlion  one  coating  is  siifriciontly  liardimcd, 
another  is  added,  and  smoked  in  tnrn.  Tims  iiny  tliicknoss 
can  l)o  produced.  11  is  seldom  that  a  shoo  reeiivcs  more  than 
a,  dozen  coats.  The  work  when  formed,  is  exposed  1(j  the  sun. 
For  a  day  or  two  it  remains  soft  enough  to  receive  peiiaanent 
im]n'essions.  During  this  timo  the  shoes  are  figured  according 
to  the  fane}-  of  the  o]K'ratives,  liy  the  use  of  a  style  or  pointed 
stick.  They  retain  their  yellowish  cohn-  for  some  time  after 
the  lasts  an^  taken  out  and  th(!y  are  e(niside!'ed  ready  for 
market.  Several  other  trees,  most  of  them  Ik  longing  tt)  the 
tribe  euphorl)iaeia>,  produce  a  similar  gum,  but  none  of  them 
is  likely  to  enter  into  eompetition  with  the  India  rubb(n'  tree  of 
Para.  Another  two,  iiot  unconnnon  in  the  province,  eaded  the 
nurssaraudui)a,  yields  in  profusion  a  Avhite  secretion,  which  so 
resend)les  milk  that  it  is  mueh  prized  for  an  aliment.  It  forms 
when  coagulated  a  speeii's  of  plast(>r,  which  is  def'iued  valuable. 
The  Brazil  nut,  "  CasUmliu.  do  3ftir(i)t/((fni,''  or  Miiranham  chest- 
nut, which  grows  upon  the  lofty  branches  of  a  giant  tree,  //•/  - 
f/idllrtic  c.rcclsff,  is  only  produced  in  the  neighb(nhood  of  the 
Amazon  Ivivi'r,  ir  the  i'tjrests  of  which  it  grov.'s  spontaneously 
in  great  abundance.  It  v.-ould,  however,  bo  impossible  to  enu- 
merate all  the  products  of  this  wonderful  regi(ni.  Am(;ngst  the 
products  general  over  tlu?  empire  are  vanilla,  sarsai)arilla,  ipe- 
cacuanha, co])al,  cinnanum,  cloves,  tamarinds  and  cinchons. 
The  most  useful  fruit  cultivated  hi  Brazil  is  the  banana,  which 
forms  a  principal  })art  of  the  food  of  the  Indians,  and  in  its  sea- 
son of  the  free  black  pojmlation,  whose  locations,  in  tlu^  low, 
warm,  thickly  wooded  spots,  ari'  favorable  to  the  culture  of  this 
plant.  The  fruit  is  from  ten  to  Lsvelve  inches  in  length,  and 
about  two  in  diameter.  Several  varieties  of  the  orange,  uhich 
comes  to  perfection  in  most  of  tlie  provinces  of  Brazil  arc  cul- 
tivated. The  [)ine-a]iplo  is  abundant  ;  but  the  necessity  of  eut- 
tmg  this  fruit  th(!  monu^nt  it  gives  (nit  its  odin-,  as  it  is  then  im- 
mediately attacked  l)y  the  ants,  is  prejudicial  to  its  flavor.  The 
innivciijd,  or  fruit  of  the  passion  flower,  is  highly  esteemed. 
The  mango  is  uncertain  in  its  produc(\  Among  other  fruits 
known  are  the  _/'/•///('  </<>  vnmh'  or  custard-aiiple,  the  guava,  tin; 
cashew,  ViiajdmlKi  or  rose-apple,  melons,  ami  iii<I()},ri(is  or  water 
mehms. 

Aijr'i'tdlnnd  Prod xcf ions. — As  no  country  is  blessed  with  a 
more  genial  climate  than  Brazil,  so  no  country  exceeds  it  in 
natural  fertility.  Its  vast  extent,  its  tliversitii'd  surface,  and  its 
varied  soil,  enable  it  to  produce  all  the  fruits  of  tro})ical  cli- 
mates, and  perhaps  in  favorable  situations  some  kinds  of  Euro- 
pean grain.  In  no  country  perha})S  would  agricrdture  yield 
ec[ual  returns  to  the  industrious  cultivator,  but  uidia}>pily,  in 


|l 


202 


INFLUENCE    OF   CLIMATE. 


fow  countries  is  it  iiioro  f^onorally  noplcc-tod.  It  is  ostiinatocT 
tliah  not  nioi'i-  than  oik*  acre  in  151)  vif  tin'  Avlxtlo  cnltivablo  area 
ot'  J>razil  is  under  any  kiml  oi  oiltuvo  ;  pro1)al)l_v  ixjt  one;  acre  in 
200.  Tiic  articles  oi'  food  raised  ill  the  niaritiiiie  provinces  of 
lirazll  in  tact  fall  short  of  tlie  consnnijition  ;  and  wh(\-it  is  ini- 
j)()rted  from  t)i(^  I'nittMl  Stati  -.,  and  occasionally  from  J-hn'ope, 
owin^'  to  tlu!  industrial  strmj^tli  of  these  districts  being  d(>vott>(i 
to  tlu!  preparation  of  ])i'oducts  f"r  exportation  to  Europe  and 
the  I'liited  States.  JNIaize,  })(\ins,  ricc^  and  cassava  root  are 
very  gen(.u"ally  cultivated,  and  in  some  ])laces,  Avlieat  and  other 
European  }j;rain  is  rear<'d.  Tlie  tlonr  of  the  cassava  root,  /'"'/;/- 
Art  (/'■  iii'iiith'()"ii,  is  the  sta])le  ariicle  of  farinaceous  food  for  all 
the  less  wealthy  classes,  and  is  so  especially  of  tln^  Indians  and 
slaves  The  common  garden  pea  has  Ixh'U  sown  and  gathered 
in  the  neighboi'hood  of  Uio  wilhin  tw(nitv-one  davs.  Colt'ee  is 
the  great  staple  mercantile  product  in  the  pnnmccs  of  and 
around  Hio-d(>- Janeiro,  and  is  the  most  vahiahle  in  amount  of 
all  the  exports  of  Brazil.  At  the  commencement  of  the  present 
cc'iitury,  till!  (juantily  grown  was  trifling.  Its  incre;iso  may  be 
(hited  from  l.SlO.  The  construction  of  a  highway  to  Minas 
Goraes  added  greatly  to  the  cultivation  in  the  interior.  Homo 
of  the  coftee  (^states  near  Hio-dt^-Janeiro  are  extensive,  and 
occupy  800  to  1,000  slaves  iu  tin;  culture  and  preparation  ;  on 
the  other  hand,  many  of  the  smaller  Inrmdurcs  have  not  moni 
land  under  it  than  their  own  family  and  tAvo  or  three  slaves  can 
manage.  A  superior  ([uality  is  grown  l)v  a  colony  of  Germans 
at  Caravellas,  in  the  province  of  Jjahia,  l)ut  most  of  it  linds  its 
way  to,  and  is  dis})osed  of  in,  the  market  of  Iiio. 

The  cultivation  of  sugar  is  extimsive  in  I'raxil,  but  is  confined 
to  the  st!a-board,  and  margins  of  rivers  and  streams  having  a 
convenient  outlet  to  a  piu't  for  exportation.  As  sugar  cannot 
l)e  grown  with  advantage  except  on  the  richest  soils — and  these 
extend  in  the  respective  provinces  only  where  alluvial  dejiosits 
have  ])een  formed — the  (piantity  grown  has  not  increased  (luring 
tlie  present  ccntui'}',  nor  is  likely  to  do  so.  In  the  middle  of 
tli(!  last  century  it  formed  the  principal  riches  of  the  country. 
In  the  course  of  1G()  leagues  along  the  coast,  from  25  leagues 
beyond  Peniambuco  to  25  leagues  beyond  the  bay  of  All  Saints, 
Pin-ard  counted  above  400  sugar  mills,  each  of  which  manufac- 
tured annually  ab(mt  100,000  arrobas,  or  2,500,000  pounds  of 
sugar.  AVhilo  the  Dutch  were  in  possession  of  Northern  IJra- 
;^il,  250,000  chests  of  sugar  were  aunuallv  remitted  to  Holland. 
Although  the  cultivation  is  now  spread  over  a  wider  space,  it 
is  chieily  conlinod  to  the  same  districts  as  in  these  epochs.  In 
the  interior,  and  where  it  would  not  boar  the  expense  of  send- 
ing to  the  ports  of  export,  sugar  is  made  into  cakes  called 


TUG   AMAZON   RIVER. 


293 


Ii(i}i(n?<i>/i'ii,  Miul  coiisuiiu'd  l>v  ilic  iiiitivcs.  Tob.'icoo  is  culti- 
vuttil,  but  not  to  u  i^i'i'tit  cxtciil.  'I'lic  tobuc'.'o  is  put  nj)  in 
rolls  of  from  200  t<^  .'{00  pounds  each,  ])r'|)iirc'd  witli  a  syruj) 
of  su^'iir,  uud  is  i'X[)o.tcd  to  liuropo  and  to  (luinca.  The  culti- 
vation of  cotton  is  pur.-ucd  to  a  considciaMt!  extent  in  tlu^ 
norlhern  jtrovinccs,  as  I'ar.i,  Maranliani,  IVrnandtuco  and 
Baliiii ;  and  were  the  colonists  enterprising^'  and  industrious, 
]uor(>  niij^ht  he  rais(  d,  and  of  a  superior  (piality.  The  cultiva- 
tion is  chiellv  iollowed  in  llu-  talile-land  or  interior  eh'vited 
plateau  of  the  north,  on  acc(nint  of  the  dryness  of  the  clinuite. 
The  [)lantalion!-s  therefore,  li(!  j^'encrallv  at  a  distance!  from  tlu! 
coast.  The  culture  is  ru(h'  and  primitive.  Little  or  no  capital 
is  embarked  in  it,  or  is  likely  to  be,  so  lon^'  as  the  expense  of 
transit — on  nuiles,  over  jun;j,lo  uinl  wild  wast<'S  for  hundreds  of 
miles — absorbs  a  h(>avv'  ])ercenta<4(!  of  the  price.  Tlie  cotton  is 
gathered  in  small  <iuantities,  and  collected  b\-  loc;d  dealers  until 
a  (piantity  largo  ouougli  to  transmit  to  next  town  has  boon  got. 
It  passes  through  many  hands  l)el"ore  it  reaches  the  port  of  em- 
barkation, and  chielly  in  bartei',  or  in  [layment  of  debts.  Tho 
cacao  region  of  Iha/.il  covers  scviral  hundred  K(|uarc  miles, 
along  the  baidvs  of  the  Amazon.  The  cacao  trees  are  low,  not 
rising  above  lifteen  or  twenty  feet ;  and  -.wo.  distinguishable  l)y 
the  yellowish  green  of  their  U'.'ivcs.  They  an.'  planted  at  inti'r- 
vals  of  about  twelve  feet ;  and,  at  first,  are  protected  from  tho 
sun's  iierceness  by  banana  ]»alnis.  Three  years  after  pla.nting 
the  trees  yield.  The  trei;  to[)S  are  sufVeretl  to  mat  together 
until  the  whole  becomes  dense  as  thatclnvork,  and  tho  ground 
below  is  constantly  wet.  The  trunk  of  the  tree  grows  irregu- 
larly. The  leaf  is  thin  and  smooth-edged.  The  llower  is  very 
small,  and  the  cone-sha[)ed  fruit  grows  direc-t  from  the  trunk 
or  branches.  It  is  eight  inches  iji  length,  and  five  in  diameter. 
Within  the  con(>  is  a  white  acid  pulp,  and  end)edded  in  this  aro 
from  thirty  to  forty  seeds,  an  inch  in  length,  narrow  and  flat. 
These  seeds  aro  the  cacao  of  commerce.  The  cacao  tree  yields 
two  ero])s  annually. — Edico.rih'  }'oij<i'j<-  ('/>  (he  AiudWit. 


294 


INFLUENCE  OF  CUMATE. 


The  Amazon  River,  Climate,  &c. 

Prof.  AdAssi/,  in  liis  Locluvo  bt'lV)vo  tli(!  "iVr»^  York  Asmcid' 
lion  for  t/ii'  ^l</ni)if(iiii')if  (>/'  Sciciirc  and  Arl,"  dclivorcil  in  tho 
CTi'cat  Hiill  of  the  Cooper  Justitutf,  I'd).  11,  lS(i7,  rciiiiirks  : 

"Tlu'  Aiiia/on  liows  nciulv  p!irall(>l  to  tlic  Eiiuator  in  a  woat- 
(mstcrly  (lirct'tioii,  tlio  main  tiinik  not  dcviatin}^  from  the 
l'](inatoi"  luoro  tlian  two  or  tlnvf  dc^^fi-ccs,  wliilc  its  S(mtliorn 
trilnitarics  rise  fr(»m  twelve  to  iiftcen  dej^rces  sontli,  and  its 
northern,  from  six  to  Keven  do;i;rces  north;  ho  that  the  -widtli  of 
the  valley  at  sonic  ]>oints  is  nearly  as  ^a'eat  as  its  total  lenj^th. 
The  fact  that  this  main  jiortion  of  the  Amazon  ilows  in  one  and 
tlie  Hanu*  latitude^,  hrin^^s  a  result  very  dillerent,  with  rofereiieo 
to  the  climate^,  from  that  ^vhich  ^vc  observe  alon^'  the  hanhs  of 
other  larfj;(^  rivers  Avhich  ilow  in  a  north-sontherly  dir(>clion,  or 
in  a  south-nortlx'rly  direction.  Our  Mississi])i)i  l)c;4;iHS  its 
course  in  very  cold  rc<;ions,  and  ends  it  almost  in  tho  tropics. 
The  Nile  1ie<^nns  nnch'r  the  l^piator,  and  further  south,  am^,  ter- 
minates in  the  Mediti  ranean,  \vhere  the  climate  is  ahvays  tem- 
perate. Yon  see,  therefore*,  that  those  rivers  are,  as  they  flow 
on,  under  very  chan<;;in}^'  climatic  iniluenct^s.  Not  so  with  tho 
Amazon,  which  occupies  a  Ixlt  under  the  Equator,  and  retains 
tho  same  clinnitic  conditions  for  its  whole  len<j,th,  and  would 
present  a  ^reat  monotony  were  it  not  for  the  peculiar  character 
of  its  tributaries,  and  for  tlu^  ])eculiar  economy  of  the  waters 
which  fill  its  liasin.  Extend inj^'  its  trunk  across  the  whole  con- 
tinent, and  sendinjjf  its  branches  north  and  south  over  such  a 
wi(h)  arcii,  the  basin  of  the  Amnion  establishes  communication 
witli  all  th{>  adjoinin_u;  Kepiiblics  of  South  America.  And  this 
is  a  point  of  j^reat  im])(U'tanco  Avith  reference  to  the  fact  that 
tho  xVmazon  is  this  year  to  be  opened  to  the  commerce  oi  the 
world  ;  for,  in  conse(]uence  of  the  natin-nl  ])hysic!d  relntion  of 
the  Amazon,  its  tributaries,  and  the  areas  drained  by  these 
tributaries,  the  openinj;'  of  the  Amazon  does  not  only  l)rin<]f  the 
internal  commerce  of  Ih'nzil  into  immi'diate  ccmtact  with  th(^ 
commerce  of  the  world,  but  also  that  of  those  Keimblics,  the 
surface  of  which  is  mainly  drained  l)y  the  tributaries  of  the 
Amazon.  Mark  hoAV  extensive  this  communication  is.  Hero 
we  have  the  (hiianas — French,  Dutch,  and  En<^lish  (luiana — 
then  tho  Eepublic  of  A'enezuela,  throu^^h  ^'hich  flows  the 
Orinoco,  and  Avhich  is  connected  directly  with  the  Eio  Negro 
throu,u;h  tho  ('asl([uiar(\  Here  we  have  tho  l{e])ub]ic  of  New 
(lr:inada,  the  eastt  rn  rivers  of  which  all  empty  into  the  Ama- 
zon, several  into  the  llio  Negro,  and  others,  such  as  the  Japiira 
and  the  I(^ii,  em]>ty  iiito  the  Amazon.  Then  wo  have  the  He- 
public  of  Ecuador,  the  principal  rivers  of  which  also  em])ty  into 


|,!i: 


THE  AMAZON  RIATR. 


205 


tlio  Aiufizon.  Then  ^vo  luivo  Pcni,  iho.  tliroo  }^'i'(>at  rlv(>rs  of  vlilcli 
('ni])ty  into  tlu;  Amazon.  Tlu-n  tlui  ri(>)>uI)lio  of  ]>(»livi;t,  flic 
^Ti'iit  riviM's  of  ^vlli(•ll  How  also  into  lli(>  Ania/on.  And,  tinally, 
\vo  liavo  the  rivovH  wliifli  ('om(>  <lo\vn  from  {]w.  taMt'-landu  of 
JjiM/.il,  Avliicli  drain  two  of  tlu!  most  fcM'tilti  jtvovincts  of  J>i-azii 
it!-ii'lf ;  tli(.  I'roviiH'o  of  Matter  (ri'osso,  throu;^li  wliicli  (]i(>  Ta])a- 
jos  and  Xin^^ii  How,  and  the  in-ovint'cvs  of  (loyjiz,  tlir(ni;;h  wliicli 
the  Araj^nay  and  the  Tocantnis  How  to  nn>et  tlio  Amazon.  So 
that  those  countries,  whicli  W(>  are  iu  the  hid)it  of  eonsiderin" 
only  from  tlu'iv  maritime  side,  have  an  exti>nsivo  artM  whiei 
sh)))es  toward  the  Amazon. 

'•  When  thinking'  of  Vciicznehi,  we  f,'en<n'al1y  rcMnemher  Carac- 
cas  ;  when  wo  think  of  ISew  (Jranada,  it  is  to  Panama  that  our 
thou.nhts  ily ;  and  wlien  of  Ecuador,  it  is  in  Guayaijuil  tliat  we 
stop  ;  when  we  think  of  Peru,  it  is  at  Lima;  when  we  think  of 
]3olivia,  it  is  at  Mansilla,  or  alon^,'  tlie  bea-eoast,  or  amoii;^  the 
hi<:,'h  mountains.  You  sec  the  whole  sj^H'O  of  Bolivia,  the 
whole  s|)a(H3  of  Peru,  the  whole  space  of  Ecuador,  the  "svholc 
s])ace  of  (Iranada,  th(,>  whole  area  of  Venezuela,  and  even  some 
parts  of  the  (luianas,  ail  slop(^  toward  the  Amazon  ;  so  that  he 
v.'ho  has  a  foot  upon  the  mouth  of  these  rivers  has  also  tlu^  key 
to  that  internal  tradi;  witli  these  provinces.  You  see,  tlieri'- 
fore,  what  an  extensive  prospect  is  o])en  to  the  enterprise  of 
Heafarin^'  nati(Mis  by  the  mere  fact  that  the  navi':^at'on  of  the 
Amazon  will  be  free  as  the  sea  itself  to  tlie  mercantile  shi]>])injj; 
of  all  natitnis.  Y'ou  may  realize  what  it  is  for  us  l)y  consider- 
ing for  a  mom(!ut  what  it  v.ould  Ix!  to  the  shipi)ing  of  England 
or  of  France,  if  the  United  States  were  at  once  to  declare  that 
tlie  Mississippi  lie  open  to  their  navigation;  if  tlu^  Hags  of 
Europe  could  tloat  at  Cincinnati,  or  St.  Louis,  and  all  the  trib- 
utaries of  the  Mississippi,  as  well  as  tne  main  river  itself 
(stopi)ing  at  intermrdiatc>  ports),  should  In-  allowed  to  l)e  ua.vi- 
gated  l)y  foreign  ships.  It  is  tliat  step  whicii  the  Emperor  of 
Brazil  has  taken.  It  is  thus  that  he  opens  his  country  to  the 
enterprise  of  the  world  ;  and  no  nation  is  more  likely  to  bi; 
as  greatly  benetiti^d  l)y  it  as  the  Ignited  States. 

'"Now,  3'ou  may  ask,  'How  can  it  l)e  that  a  nation  throws 
away  its  wealth  in  that  manner  into  the  hands  of  foreigners'?' 
A'ery  serious  considerations  nnist  htive  weighed  in  the  scale  to 
induce  the  Government  to  divest  itself  to  that  extent  of  its 
internal  property.  The  case  is  sim])le.  The  Avhole  vallc^v  of 
the  Amazon  has  not  yet  l)een  peopled.  The  whole  tract  of  this 
oonntiT,  which  is  as  large  as  many  Empires  of  tlie  lirst  rank  iu 
the  old  World — the  Avhole  of  that  country  draiuiHl  by  the 
Amazon  does  not  nourish  at  this  moment  250,000  individuals, 
incluiling  the  Indians ;  and  no  doubt  the  Government  of  Brazil 


y   (• 


ft: 


20G 


INFLUENCE   OF  CLIMATE. 


has  tlio;T;^'lit  that  the  only  way  of  sotilinj.';  tliat  rich  country  wi.s 
to  offer  its  treasures  to  all  nations.  Let  me,  therefore,  say  a 
few  words  of  tho  eliaract(>r  of  that  country,  and  the  facilities 
which  are  offered  there  for  settlement,  for  commerce,  and  for 
travel.  In  the  th-st  ]ilace,  wIumi  wc^  speak  of  the  valley  of  the 
Amazcni,  we  ou^'ht  to  at  onc(^  divest  ourselvi^s  of  the  ordinary 
idea  which  we  conihinc^  with  tho  word  '  valley.'  There  is  not 
a  l)ottf>m,  with  walls  or  hanks  rising  on  hoth  sides,  and  forminfj; 
an  inclosure  to  tlie  water  that  runs  in  the  bottom  of  the  vaUc}'. 
Hero  the  basin  of  the  Amazon  is  an  extensive  i)lain.  It  is  so 
Ihit  that  the  slope  is  hardly  mcn-e  than  a  foot  in  ten  miles  ;  and 
over  the  whole  of  this  extent  of  2,500  miles  the  slope  is  not 
more  than  210  feet.  It  is  only  15  feet  from  Obydos  to  the  sea- 
shore, and  it  is  only  200  feet  from  Taliatinga  to  tlu;  sea-shor*^,  and 
yet  the  distance  is,  in  a  straight  line,  over  2,000  miles  ;  so  that 
really  the  Hlo])e  is  hardly  a  foot  in  ten  miles.  The  imjuvssion 
to  the  eye  is  that  of  an  absolute  plain,  and  the  flow  of  water  is 
so  gentle,  generalh',  that  in  many  j^arts  it  hardly  seems  to  How. 
It  makes  the  impression  of  a  fresh  water  ocean  far  more  than 
a  river,  and  the  width  of  this  basin  com]iarcs  favorably  to  its 
extraordinary  l(>ngth.  There  is  not  one  cliannel  through  which 
the  ])ulk  of  the  water  flows,  lait  a  multitudiiious  nu.iiber  of 
channels,  conn(H'ted  with  one  aiiother  in  tho,  most  various  ways, 
so  that  instead  of  travelling  in  a  straight  course,  you  may 
ascend  tlie  Amaz(ni  in  any  number  of  ]/arallel  channels,  and 
])ass  from  one  to  another  l)y  tin}'  number  of  int((rsccting  com- 
nuniications.  And  this  not-work  of  rivers  sjn-cads  over  an  area 
which  is  sometimes  50,  100,  or  U]nvards  of  150  miles  wid(\  In 
that  region  you  have?  to  travel  for  about  250  miles  from  tho 
mouth  of  the  Madeii-a  before  you  come  to  the  rising  land  over 
which  the  water  falls  in  cascades.  At  the  Tocantins,  and  Ta- 
pajos,  and  Xingu,  you  have  to  ascend  150  or  ISO  miles  before 
you  come  to  those  higher  grcmnds  which  determine  rapids  into 
water  courses,  and  on  the  north  side  it  is  e(|ually  at  a  consid- 
erabh'  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  basin  that  the  land  rises 
into  gates.  Over  the  whole  ex])anso  of  the  valk>y,  for  hundreds 
of  nnles  on  either  side  of  the  main  channel,  tlu^  bottom  of  t\m 
^alley  is  as  flat  at  the  side  as  it  is  in  a  longitudinal  direction  ; 
so  that  it  is  an  inundated  plain  I'ather  than  a  river  ;  and  if 
there  are  channels  in  which  water  flows  more  constantly  than 
others,  these  channels  are  so  frequently  overflowed  by  the  rise 
of  the  water,  you  have  frecpiently,  for  a  month  at  a  time,  tho 
water  covering  this  wide  expanse  without  break.  But  there  is 
a  great  ditl'orence  in  tho  character  of  these  water  courses,  and 
a  great  difl'crence  also  in  the  nature  of  the  water  its(>lf. 

"  Before,  however,  I  enter  into  details  concerning  the  river, 


THE  AMAZON  RIVEE, 


297 


let  ip.o  say  fi  few  words  concerning  the  climate.  Tlie  valley 
of  tlio  Amazon  lias  a  rather  temperate  cliniat(\  Thonf,fii 
under  the  Ecjuator,  it  is  not  ;-mong  the  hottest  parts  of  the 
i^dohe.  The  hottest  point  of  the  earth's  temperature  extends  to 
the  north  of  the  valley  of  tl<o  Amazon,  aloui;'  the  northern  shoro 
of  (hiiana,  Venezuela,  and  the  more  northerri  part  <vl'  South 
America.  The  valley  of  the  Amazon  is  of  milder  tem])eraturo, 
owin,t(  to  two  circumst.'inccs  ;  the  (^xt(>nt  of  sulimer^^<'d  land, 
with  tlu^  ennstaut  ev;iporation,and  the  re;^ular  Hov.-  of  tiie  trade 
Avinds,  which  are  constantly  blowing  in  the  face  of  the  Amazon, 
and  sending  an  air  cooled  hv  th<^  amount  of  moisture^  received 
over  the  Avhoh^  of  its  surfaee.  Tlio  trade  winds  Llow  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon  and  ovt  r  the  whole  ^alley,  so  that  thero 
is  an  unceasing  cool  breeze  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  base  of  tho 
Andes,  reducing  markedly  the  average  t(>m])erature  of  tho 
valley.  Indeed,  tho  average  tem])era(ure  of  thc^  vidley  is  only 
82 '.  The  niiixinnuu  teinperature  is  from  DO  to  02°  ;  the  mini- 
nmm  about  72  '  to  7i\  It  is  only  about  Manaos,  the  junction 
ol  the  Eio  Negro,  that  the  temperature  I'ises  to  1)5  .  Tho  tem- 
perature between  day  and  night  is  always  perceptible^  and 
toward  morning  the  nights  are  always  remarkably  cool.  Under 
these  circumstances,  you  s(^c  that,  far  from  shaiing  tho 
intensity  of  heat  characti-ristic  of  tro})icid  regions,  the  valley 
of  the  Amazon  is  favored  to  a  degree  which  will  nuike  it  a 
pleasant  luibitati(m  for  the']KMi])le  of  our  race.  During  nearly 
a  year  of  residence  there,  I  do  not  feci  that  the  climate  had 
the  slightest  un])leasant  inlluence.  My  companions  enjoyed  it 
as  well  as  I  did  ;  and,  in  fact,  avo  found  it  was  as  agreeable 
a  residence  as  W(>  could  wish,  prefera])le  to  the  intense  heat  of 
the  dog-days,  ami  so  uniform  as  to  save  the  iidiabitauts  from 
those  sudden  changes  of  our  climate  so  injurious  to  health.  If 
the  bracing  air  of  our  northern  cliii'ate  has  a  more  stinudating 
intluenc(!  upon  the  energies  of  man,  wc  knov/  how  many  it 
kills.  It  is  tho  strong  and  healthy  that  survive;  and  many 
diseases  which  are  the  result  of  our  northern  climate  are  only 
cured  by  a  residence  at  the  south,  while  the  south  is  saved 
from  all  these  inconveniences,  if  it  has  some  of  its  own.  I 
would  sum  up  my  description  of  the  valley  of  tho  Amaz(m  as  a 
h.iNdthy  country,  which  will  ])rove  genial  to  tho  white  race  as 
nuich  as  any  other  part  of  the  world  having  a  similar  tem- 
perature. 

"  I  know  that  my  statements  are  contrary  to  g(?nerally  received 
notions,  and  that  the  valley  of  tlie  Anuizon,  in  particulai',  has 
a  wry  had  reputation.  IJut  it  docs  not  dc  serve  it ;  and  tho 
origdn  ol'  this  reputation  is  one  Avliicl)  ought  to  be  ex])lained. 
It  is  owing  to  the  reports  of  the  oiUcers  of  the  (iovernment  of 


#1 


1 
flu 


i<      """" 


mm 


li 


29S 


INFLUENCE   OF   CLIMATE. 


Brazil,  sont  there  to  ndnnnistor  tlio  affairs  of  the  country,  who, 
(h^sirous  of  bohii^  rolicviHl  from  ix  kind  of  oxilo  in  an  nnsotth:'d 
Lmd,  and  -wishing  to  return  to  soeiety,  to  tlie  capital,  or  to  tho 
hrxury  they  may  have  enjoyed,  in  order  to  aeeoni])lish  that  end, 
represent  tho  country  as  injurious  to  health,  and  their  residence 
there  as  a  great  saciilice,  descrvinf;  an  advance  in  their  social 
position.  And  that  this  is  a  true  ex})lanati()n,  I  have  by  the 
acknowledg'nient  of  sonic  gentlemen  who  h"d  been  there,  and 
who  had  t]iems(dves  ])layed  tliat  <^'anie. 

"Now,  let  us  look  at  thii  river  and  its  banks.  Tho  average 
tem})erature  of  the  water  is  81  ^ ;  the  maximum  tem]ieraturc  is 
84:-;  tlu>  lovv'cst  tem])iTature  of  th(>  river  is  77  -^  to  78'' ;  so  that 
tlie  watt'rs  are  constantly  tepid.  It  is  only  the  streams  Avhieh 
flow  thrcm,L;h  the  forest  that  are  tem])erate  and  cool.  Where 
there  is  dense  vegetation  (and  nearly  the  whole  siu'faee  of  tho 
land  is  covered  with  it),  yon  may  find  at  all  times  cool  water. 
Tho  whole  of  this  extensive  area  is  covered  b}'  vt>getation. 
This  plain  is  not,  like  other  plains  i;nder  the  tropics,  ])artly 
descH't  and  partly  cov(>red  with  vej^etation.  The  whole  is  cov- 
ered with  the  nujst  luxuriant  vegetation — a  vegetation  some- 
times so  dense  that  it  is  almost  impenc'trable.  Of  its  character 
I  shall  i;'ivo  some  account  at  the  close  of  this  lecturi>. 

''And  now  let  mo  point  <mt  to  you  tin;  fact  that  the  River 
Amazon  has  thre(>  diilerent  regioijs,  whieh  present  different 
afi})ects.  At  the  lower  turn  of  its  course  two  great  tributaries 
join  it  I  one  of  them  comes  from  the  lable  lands  of  Guiana  and 
the  low  lands  between  the  Andes  and  Ciuiana) ;  the  llio  Negro 
on  its  mn-thern  shores,  and  tho  Rio  Madeira,  on  its  soirthern 
shore,  which  comes  from  the  mountains  of  Bolivia  and  the 
Andes  at  that  latitude*.  Tlu^se  two  tril)utaries  are  so  large 
that,  from  their  junction  witli  tho  main  stream,  the  stream 
assumes  a  greater  dimension.  The  whole  basin  is  full  of  water 
after  it  has  receiv(Hl  these  two  tributaries,  and  it  is  that  jtart 
alone  which  generally  goes  by  the  nanu;  of  the  Ama/onas.  The 
Bio  Anuizonas  begins  at  the  juni'tion  t)f  the  Bio  Negro,  and 
extenils  to  the  Atlantic.  Above  tlie  junetiou  of  th(>  Bio  Ne,t;ro, 
and  through  the  territ(jr>  of  Peru,  it  is  called  the  Bio  SoliuKies  ; 
and  it  receives,  from  Peru  to  Bio  Negro,  two  very  im])ortant 
tril)utaries  on  its  northern  side.  One  is  the  Iga,  and  the  other 
the  Ja])ura.  On  the  southern  side  it  receives  other  tril)utai'ies, 
and  tJien  comes  the  Jlio  Madeira,  to  which  I  have  already 
alluded.  That  part  of  the  Amazon  which  occu])ies  the  middle 
track  of  the  i'ontin(-nt,  goes  by  the  name  of  the  Soleniues.  Tho 
upper  part,  which  is  in  Peru,  and  which  conu-s  down  from  the 
Andes,  is  called  Mirafmn,  and  it  receives  iiibutaries  on  the 
northern  side  and  on  the  southern.     The  southern  shore  of  tho 


THE  AMAZON  MVER. 


291) 


»l 


Amazon,  below  the  Mmleira,  receives  tlio  Xiuf;n,  tlio  Ta])ajos, 
and  Tocantius,  all  three  of  Avhicli  tloAv  from  the  northern  slope 
of  the  table  lanJs  of  Brazil.  To  the  east  of  the  Ilio  Xe;j;i'() 
there  are  a  number  of  rivers,  which  are  hardly  known  nmon}^' 
Tis  b_v  tluMr  nam{\s,  and  which  are  yet  very  important  and 
remarkable  for  their  peculiar  character;  very  broad,  but  nijt 
lon<^.  One  of  them  opens  into  the  Amazon  with  a  m(mth  oi 
over  thirty  miles.  The  Tocantins  presents  a  front  of  sixty 
miles,  and  it  is  only  one  of  the  smaller  trilmtaries  of  the  Ama- 
zon ;  so  that,  as  you  reach  its  mouth,  it  seems  as  if  a  broail 
ocean  were  spreading  before  you,  and  you  were  ])assing  from 
the  river  into  an  open  sea,  instead  of  meeting  an  atHucnt  of  the 
river  on  which  you  navigate.  So  also  the  Xingu.  It  is  not  over 
forty  miles  in  haigth,  and  has  a  width  of  over  twenty  miles  ;  so 
that  these  rivers  are  remarkable  for  theii"  width.  They  arc 
comparatively  shallow,  and  their  cun-ent  is  very  light.  The 
natural  conseijuenee  is  that  they  carry  little  material  in  suspen- 
sion. Tlieir  waters  are  therefore  clear,  transi)arent,  and  some- 
what tinged  l)y  vegetable  substance.  The  waters  of  the  Tapa- 
jos  are  greenish,  those  of  the  Xingu  arc  a  tinge  of  gray,  those 
of  the  Trjcautius  about  the  same,  a  little  yellowish  ;  ]jut  all 
three  are  clear  waters,  as  are  also  the  rivers  1  have  named 
before.  There  are  other  rivers  of  the  same  character  which 
an;  tributary  to  the  Madeira,  but  I  need  not  nanse  tluua  jjartic- 
nlarly.  Now  the  Madeira  is  of  a  totally  dilierent  character. 
It  is  a  Very  deep  rivir,  which  {lows  ra])idly,  nnd  carries  with  it 
a  large  amount  of  loose  material,  mud,  and  whitish  clay  ;  so 
that  its  waters  are  tiu'bid,  of  a  milky  color ;  and  hence  the 
Madeira  is  called  the  '  AVhite  Water  Iviver.'  The  same  char- 
act(,'ristic  is  shared  by  all  the  rivers  that  llow  into  the  Amazon 
to  the  west  of  the  Madeira.  The  Purus,  which  is  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  tributaries,  the  Jurua,  and  the  Japura,  arc  all 
three  white  water  riviM's.  They  diller,  however,  from  the  Ma- 
deira in  one  respect — that  though  they  are  very  deep,  they  are 
very  tortuous  ;  their  coiirso  is  not  straight,  but  they  are  mean- 
dering. They  are  litei'ally  destituti>  of  islands,  Avhile  the  Ma- 
deira has  uumertms  isl;inds.  The  consecjuence  is  that  these 
rivers  admit  of  navigation  to  ,'i  great  distance. 

"^Vii  officer  in  the  lirazilian  army  (^Major  Continho),  who  was 
my  companion  during  the  whoh^  journiy,  and  who  is  as  faniilinr 
with  the  Amazon  as  our  jiilots  are  with  the  31ississippi,  told 
me  that  he  explored  the  prini'i])al  course  of  the  Purus  for  over- 
nOO  miles,  and  found  the  river  navigable  for  vessels  drawing 
fifteen  to  eighteen  feet.  The  I{io  Negro,  again,  p-ri'sents  a  very 
ditrerent  aspect.  It  is  a  river  whit-h  is  very  wide,  but  it  is  deej), 
and  has  a  very  slow  course.     It  is  dark  and  +rausi)arent ;  dark, 


$ 


■'«<^ 


300 


rSTLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


a 


o\\\u'^  to  tlio  imnuMiso  amount;  of  vegct.'iLlo  matter  lu>ltl  in 
solution  in  the  water;  somcwliat  like  tliose  ainbcr-colored 
streams  "we  find  in  our  woodlands,  wliieli  are  dark  and  yet 
transparent.  Such  is  tint  llio  Nejjjro,  (inly  tliat  Mistead  of  dark 
aiiilier,  its  tint  is  so  rich  that,  seen  from  al)ov(\  ,;he  whoh*  river 
ai>i)ears  as  lilack  as  ink.  There  are  other  riveis  wliich  hav(^ 
the  same  character,  hut  not  so  dark.  You  se(>,  therefore,  tliat 
not  only  iu  width  and  dejjth  and  bulk  of  water,  hut  also  in  tlio 
character  of  the  water,  evei'v  ri^'j/ion  of  the  Ama/on  has  its 
])eculiarities. 

'•  1'he  Amazon  is  the  main  stream  ;  it  is  a  white  Avat(>r  liver  ; 
it  is  the  widest  of  all ;  it  is  tliat  which  occu})ies  the  widest  ar(>a, 
the  ramilications  of  which  j^.*)  over  the  lar;;-est  suiface,  and 
which  flows  most  evenly  alou).;  its  -.vhole  course  ;  and  as  it  Hows 
from  the  mountains,  an.l  its  main  tributaries  come  iVoiu  the 
mountains,  it  is  for  its  whoh-  course  a  white;  water  rivei'.  Tiie 
lar{j;o  amount  of  water  Avhich  tin;  l{io  Ni'^ro  throws  into  the 
Amazon  hardly  tinges  it  :it  idl,  and  you  may  trace  the  yellow  isli 
white  tint  into  tla;  ocean  about  50  mili'S  Ix'fore  you  s(m>  land. 
The  front  of  the  Amazon  itself,  as  it  enters  the  Atlantic,  is  150 
miles  ;  so  that  it  is,  as  ytm  miiy  see,  the  lar<;est  and  most 
voluminous  of  all  the  rivers  knowii.  The  liaidis  of  the  river 
aie  everywhen!  clear,  and  thi\v  ris(i  jfradually  above  the  level  of 
the  water.  The  rise  is  hardly  over  20,  150,  or  40  feet  in  the 
middle  course.  You  have  fre([V'entlv  biinks  of  .about  50,  (10, 
and  sometimes  100  fi'et.  In  one  re.L!,ion  only  do  thc^  banks  rise; 
to  a  {.);reater  height,  and  back  of  the  river  are  hills  of  TOO  or 
800  feet,  which,  owing  to  the  (^ven  aiijiearancc  of  the  whole 
<  ountry,  give  the  impression  to  the  eyes  of  a  lol'ty  rang(\ 
These  n  ally  low  hills  (the  highest  not  beiiig  ov(>r  1,000  feet) 
appear,  by  contrast  with  the  flat  country,  like  our  Alj)ine  nn^un- 
tains.  Of  these  hills  I  shall  have  occasion  to  say  somi'thing 
more.  They  are  characteristic  of  that  region.  Tlu  ir  structure 
is  very  remarkabl(>,  as  they  arc  thoioughly  stratitied,  and  indi- 
cate what  deposits  formerly  occui)ied  the  valk>y  with  morc^  pre 
cisicm  than  any  other  feature  of  tlie  v;)lley  itself. 

"Now  as  to  tlu;  change  of  level  of  thi:s  immense  stream,  it 
varies  within  limits  which  are  really  astonishing.  The  river 
may  be  at  tinu'S  ','A),  40,  or  50  feet  higher  than  at  otiier  times. 
Y'ou  may  conceive  what  an  amount  of  water  must  be  condensed 
from  the  atmos])here,  in  oi'der  to  fill  a  plain  so  exteusivi;  with 
an  amount  of  water  sullicient  to  raise  the  h'vel  of  the  main  cur- 
rent to  such  an  extraordinary  amount.  ]>ut  this  does  not  take 
jilace  simultaneously  over  the  whole  \alley;  so  that  tjieic  is 
the  most  extraordinary  distribution  of  freshets  over  tluj  whole 
basin. 


1! 


THE   AMAZON   KHTR. 


301 


"Tho  rains  l)c\^iii  on  tli<^  Hovithoru  sido  of  tlio  Vijlloy  in  tho 
monilis  of  Scpti'uilx'r  aiid  Ocloltcr,  and  from  tlu!  table-land  of 
Brazil  and  tlu;  mountains  of  JJolivia  tho  soutliorn  trii)utari('s  of 
the  Amazon  lirst  Ijc^dn  to  swell  ut  such  a  rate  that  through 
December  they  reaeli  Avith  their  new  ilood  the  valley  of  tho 
Amazon  ;  th<>  <;nMt<\st  ri^ein  the  Amazon  bein;^'  in  the  month  of 
March,  when  in  the  ieL!,ion  Ix^low  th<!  Madeir.-i  the  rise  may  i)e 
as  mnch  us  a  foot  in  twenty-four  lumrs  dui-inj,'  the  whole  month 
of  INIareh.  The  rise  eontiinies  on  until  the  v\n]  of  .June,  •when 
the  river  is  most  full  ;  so  that  it  takes  from  October  to  June  for 
the  rivers  on  tlie  southei-n  sid(^  of  the  Amazon  to  lill  and  dis- 
charge their  water  into  tlu^  main  stream.  At  a  somewhat  ear- 
lier j)eriod  the  Andes  si'ud  down  their  contribution  to  the  main 
river  III  e(nise(jnence  of  the  melting  of  the  snow  on  the  summit 
of  the  moiuitains  in  tlu!  months  of  August  and  September. 

"  Th(>  gr(  at  freshet  icsulting  from  this  melting  of  the  snow 
in  Eqviador  is  felt  in  the  valley  in  October  and  Novem- 
ber ;  it  is  felt  in  Novemb^  •  as  low  as  Manaos,  so  that  in  con- 
uectiou  "with  tlu^  waters  c-oming  down  from  the  A.ndes  and  the 
watiU's  coming  from  tht;  table-land  of  JJrazil  and  the  mountains 
of  liolivia,  the  Amazon  is  lilled  in  its  ci'ntre  and  on  its  southern 
side,  and  llow.s  over  to  its  northern  side,  the  whole  river  ex- 
tending northward  in  conse([uiMice  of  this  swelling — for  dui'ing 
three  months  all  the  rivers  which  come  to  the  Aniazon  on  its 
northern  side  are  at  their  lowest  stand  as  t>mi)ty  as  tlcy  ever 
are.  In  turn,  tliey  will  swi'll  to  a,  similar  In-ight  ;  but,  in  the 
month  of  Deceml)ci',  the  northern  rivers  are  at  their  lowest  ebb. 
Tlui  soutlu'rn  rivers  How  into  them  ;  they  push  the  wat.'rs  of 
the  main  basin  to  a  nujre  northern  latitude^  than  during  any 
other  season.  It  rains  in  the  main  valley  during  the  months 
of  January,  I'ebi'uary,  and  jiartly  dui'ing  ^birch  also  ;  l)ut  in 
March  the  rains  extend  chietly  over  the  tabh>-land  of  Guiana 
and  the  noi'thern  ))art  of  tlie  Andes,  and  (hu'ing  A]>ril  and  May 
the  northern  rivers  begin  to  swell,  and  in  June  they  have 
reached  their  maximum,  so  that  by  tlu!  end  of  June,  when  the 
southern  rivers  have  b(>gun  to  em))ty,  the  northern  rivers  llow- 
ing  into  the  .Vnmzon  rise  to  th(>  same  great  levi^l.  The  liio 
Kegro  at  ^lanaos  risi>s  generally  to  more  than  forty-livi;  feet 
ubove  its  low  level,  and  that  mass  of  water  now  pressing 
against  the  waters  v.hich  occupy  the  centre  of  the  valley,  pushes 
them  southwjird,  and  these  rivers  are  mnv  moving  in  another 
direction.  So  that  the  whole  How  is,  as  it  wei'c,  thus  the  mahi 
How  from  west  to  t>ast  on  that  gentU'  j)lain  whieh  has  such  :i 
slight  slope,  aided  by  the  iuterilow  from  the  south  antl  tla?  north 
ut  o})posite  seasons.  The  natural  conse([uence  is  that,  while 
the  Avliolo  Hows  westwartl,  it  Hows  westward  in  its  northern- 


ki  J 


'^1 


^\ 


i 


302 


EvFLUEN'CE  OF  CLIMATE. 


H 


t  ! 


most  rcacli  (liuiiig  our  winter  months,  and  it  flows  westward  in 
ib;  most  sontlun-nmost  r(\'icli  durinu;  tlic  months  of  our  summer, 
and  in  tliat  manner  the  Ixjttom  of  the  valley  is  constantly  shift- 
ing to  and  fro.  The  natural  eonsoquenee  is  that  there  arc  ex- 
traordinary water  eonnnunicMtions  l)etween  these  rivers. 

"  You  may  travel  up  the  l\io  Ne<;ro,  and  perhaps  sixty  miles 
distant  from  its  mouth  you  will  laid  a  white  water  river  trilni- 
tary  from  the  Amazon  tlowinf^'  into  one  of  its  own  tributaries — 
a.  lirandi  from  the  main  river  tlowin,^  into  one  of  its  trilmtaries 
sixty  miles  ubovi'  its  mouth,  moving;  with  it  and  nu'etin<j;  the 
main  river  afterward  ;  or  you  may  liud  that  from  the  Purus 
there  is  a  eomnnniieation  extending  aeross  the  lower  portion  of 
its  course  Avitli  the  Madeira,  or  that  from  the  Madeira  there  is 
a  communication  with  the  Tapajos  in  such  a  nmnner  that,  with- 
out ever  travelling  in  the  main  course  of  the  river,  it  is  possi- 
l)].'.!  to  pass  from  the  basin  of  one  of  its  tributaries  into  the 
basin  of  the  other.  AMien  the  country  is  more  settled,  these 
channels  w  ill  1  lo  of  immense  advantage  for  intercommunication, 
for  tlu'v  are  limited  to  tlu^  lower  course  of  the  river.  About 
400  miles  above  its  mouth  the  Purus  sends  a  l)ranch  which 
goes  into  the  Madeira,  the  Madeira  sends  branches  which  go 
into  the  Tapajos,  the  Ta])ajos  sends  branches  which  go  into 
the  T(^cantius,  and  this  occurs  t';  a  most  extraordinary  extent. 

"  If  I  had  Ijefore  me  a  deta'led  map  representing  the  two 
arms  of  the  Amazon,  you  would  be  surprised  to  sec  how  a  hun- 
driul  branches  intercommunicate  between  the  northern  and 
southern  divisions  of  the  river  and  establish  inuumeralile  passes 
from  (me  part  of  the  country  to  the  othei".  In  fact,  all  these 
passages  between  the  rivers  are  natural  highways,  wliich  Avill 
forever  remain  the  principal  nutans  of  comnniiiication  from  one 
part  of  the  cimntry  to  the  other.  The  whole  land  is  too  much 
■under  the  power  of  water  to  evt'r  be  susce})tible  of  sustaining 
inland  travel  over  any  great  extent.  The  patches  of  land  which 
rise  al)ove  the  river  are  limited  in  extent,  though  tliey  are  siitli- 
ciently  high  and  extensive  to  afford  the  most  exquisite  sites  for 
settlements,  lint  the  main  conuuunication  throughout  the 
river  country  must  forever  be  a  Avater  communication,  and  the 
whole  country  nnist  be  administered  in  order  to  be  well  achnin- 
istered,  ncjt  as  land,  but  as  a  cluster  of  islands,  betAveen  which 
the  comnmuication  is  necessarily  by  water.  That  idea  must 
be  the  prevalent  idea  with  those  who  have  any  ijitention  of  set- 
tling in  that  country.  The  idea  of  travel  by  horso  and  wagoi'; 
by  stage,  or  by  railroad,  is  an  idea  that  must  ever  be  foreign 
to  the  future  civilization  of  the  Valley  of  the  Anuizon.  Tlie 
boat  is  the  natural  means  of  conveyance  over  the  whole  land, 
and  there  is  something  charming  in  the  character  of  this  Avater 


Tim   A.MAZON   IlITER. 


303 


;'o 


communication,  covcv(m1  uitli  sncli  luxuriant  vegetation,  so 
varicMt  and  yet  so  continuous  that  nothing  can  give  an  iih'a  of 
what  sueli  a  siibmerged  conntvy  covered  by  forests  and  inter- 
locked l)y  plants  of  all  kinds  is.  It  must  bo  r^eeu  to  form  au 
idea  of  its  true  iq)pearance.  I  will  try,  however,  to  convey 
some  idea  In'  compai'ison  rather  than  by  direct  descri])ti()n. 

"The  whole  land  is  covered  with  vegetation  and  forests. 
There  are  here  and  there  small  S}iaces  ■'vhich  arc  occu])it'd  by 
water,  but  won  those  are  encroaelud  n})on  by  tln^  V(\getation, 
and  ^  here  is  no  knowing  where  the  land  ends  and  the  water 
begins.  The  a([uatic  vegetation  is  so  dense  that  it  extends 
over  the  land  into  the  water,  concealing  the  limits  of  the  one 
and  the  .  '"ginning  of  the  other.  AVherever  there  are  extensive 
lakes  theii'  margins  arc  covered  with  this  acpatie  vegetation, 
which  extends  sometimes  very  far  from  the  shore,  and  here 
there  arc  extensive  tracts  covered  with  water,  which  a]>}iear, 
nevertheless,  as  if  they  were  laud,  owing  to  the  d.  use  growth 
of  all  sorts  of  ])lants  sulliciently  high  to  conceal  entirely  the 
surface  of  the  wati'r.  I  have  navigated  for  miles  and  miles 
among  meadows  which  have  presented  a  variety  of  flowers  as 
great  as  our  prairies  in  the  most  favorable  season  of  the  year, 
and  over  these  large  meadows  covered  in  this  way  with  a([uatic 
vegetation  the  animal  creation  is  as  varied,  the  water-birds 
especially  being  so  numerous  tliat  the  scene  is  one  of  the 
most  varied  that  can  be  conceived  of. 

"  The  forest  itself  has  a  character  of  its  own,  entirely  dilTereufc 
from  the  forest  of  other  parts  of  the  world.  "With  us  in  the 
temperate  zone,  in  the  more  northern  hititxules,  all  tlie  forests 
consist  of  a  few  kinds  of  trees,  and  these  trees  are  clustered 
togeihev,  a  large  number  of  individuals  of  the  same  kind  occu- 
pying exclusively  a  considerable  tract  of  land.  Not  so  with 
the  tro])ical  forests.  l*lants  the  most  varied,  the  most  diversi- 
tied  from  on(>  another,  an;  mixed  togetlnn-  in  the  nuist  ])rofuse 
manner,  so  that  you  rarely  see  sevt>ral  stems  of  the  same  tree 
side  by  side,  but  a  mixture  of  tin;  most  diversified  kind  are 
crowded  together,  and  form  as  dense  forests  as  oui'  densest. 
\iu\  then  between  them  there  arc  a  variety  of  smaller  plants, 
and  of  parasites  growing  upon  the  trees,  and  of  vines  climbing 
from  one  tree  to  another;  and  it  is  dit'llcult,  r-iometimes,  to  de- 
termine to  which  pliint,  vino  or  tree  the  llowers  or  fruit  you  sc  o 
belong.  The  variety  is  the  more  astonishing  as  at  all  seasons 
thfire  are  some  of  these  plants  in  flower.  Though  there  are 
somewhat  mark<Hl  st'asons,  yet  there  is  never  a  period  when  llie 
trees  are  destitute  of  leaves.  The  forests  are  evergreen,  and 
only  a  few  kinds  of  trees,  at  jiarticnlar  seasons,  dro})  their 
leaves;   but  they  are  so  few  in  nimiljer  that  they  only  create 


1 


ii 


11 


'l 


30  i 


INFLUEXt'E  or  CLIMATE. 


1:  ■  I 


the  impression  of  a  few  dead  trees  iii  a  tliick  growing  forest. 
Tlicsci  forests  are  rieli  in  all  kinds  of  natnral  jn^xlucts,  and  it  is 
in  these  [)rodnets  that  consists  the  Avealth  of  the  continent. 
The  valley  of  tl.o  Aunizou,  as  a  country,  is  not  rich  in  mineral 
productions.  It  is  only  in  tlu^  higlu>r  land  of  (loyax  and  IMatto 
CJrosso  that  there  are  gold  and  diamond  mines,  nnd  it  is  only  in 
the  lower  parts  of  tlie  Andes  that  you  lind  valua1)le  mineral  ju-o- 
durtions.  'rin'oughout  this  exten.sivo  valley,  as  I  have  stated 
before,  the  mineral  kingdom  is  re])rescnted  only  by  sands,  clays 
and  loams,  to  which  I  sh;dl  allude  more  in  detail  in  a  future 
lecture,  but  there  are  no  rocks  cxcei)t  where  the  country  begins 
to  rise  ;  for  instiince,  on  Mie  llio  Negro,  above  its  jiinctioii  v.ith 
the  Ama/con,  and  on  the  Tai)ajos,  the  Tocantins,  the  Xingu, 
and  the  Madeira,  above  the  waterfalls.  There  the  solid  rock 
begins,  and  there  is  land  in  which  valuable  mineral  productions 
may  bi;  obtained;  Init  for  the  whole  extent  of  this  plain  the 
chief  wealth  of  the  comitry  consists  in  timl)er,  in  textile  libres, 
in  various  fruits,  and  all  the  various  productions  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom. 

"  In  the  lirst  ]')lace,  let  me  allude  to  the  tiud)er.  The  variety 
is  incredible.  I  have  seen  at  Para,  at  a  ])u])lic  exhibition,  a 
collection  of  Brazilian  tind)er,  choice  and  varied,  and  suscejtt- 
il)le  of  furnishing  material  for  the  most  beautiful  cabiiu^t  v/ork, 
of  117  diti'ereut  kinds,  collected  over  a  piece  of  land  half  a,  mile 
square.  We  have  not  in  the  United  States  one-half  of  this 
numbi'r  of  dill'erent  kinds  of  timber  worth  anything  for  build- 
ing pur[)oses,  or  for  manufacturing  ;  yet  tlu-re  the  variety  is  so 
great  that  from  a  snudl  area  of  half  a  scjuare  mile  117  dilierent 
kinds  could  be  collected.  I  have  brought  home  from  this  sliort 
expedition  of  ten  mouths'  survey,  in  which  the  study  of  phmts 
was  only  an  accessory  part  of  iny  examination,  specimens  of 
1300  ditierent  kinds  of  valuabl;>  tim])in-,  remarkable  for  the 
l)eaut_v  of  their  grain,  for  their  hardness,  the  varii^ty  of  their 
tints,  and  their  durability,  which,  if  introduced  into  the  com- 
mei'ce  of  the  world,  would  change  the  art  for  which  wood  is 
suppli(Ml.  And  that  wood  is  not  yet  used  in  any  way.  It  is 
allowed  to  tloat  down  the  river  ;  and  the  only  impediment  to 
navigation  that  1  have  perceived  at  any  time  was  the  quantity 
of  tioaiing  timber.  So  little  have  the  inhabitants  niadt;  use  of 
it  that  they  have  no  saw-mills;  and  when  they  want  timber  for 
any  purpose,  they  cut  dowji  a  tree  of  sufficient  length,  and  then 
cut  it  the  size  they  wish  with  a  hatchet.  This  Avaste  is  prac- 
ticed in  reference  to  timber.  "With  reference  to  textile  lihres, 
there  is  an  endless  variety,  and  we  would  be  greatly  benelited, 
so  far  as  regards  om*  ship})ing  alone,  if  wo  would  make  use  of 
those  tissues  which  arc  so  peculiarly  adapted  for  making  cables, 


i»t 


THE  AMAZON   RIVER. 


305 


vl- 


rojios,  and  the  like.  There  are,  in  particular,  se\eral  kiiuls  of 
palm  leaves  wliich  have  a  very  resistant  and  stronj<  111  tie. 
These  may  l>e  oljtaincnl  in  any  (juantityon  the  l)anks  of  \\w.  Itio 
Nefj;ro,  and  already  the  J*'n^lish  have  Ix^^jjini  to  export  that 
liidsdi.d,  hnt  I  am  not  aware  that  the  AnKn'icans  have  yet  bi'^Min 
to  make  use  of  it.  The  tibre  is  so  light  that  the  cables  may 
float  when  made. 

Among  other  articles  which  are  most  useful,  and  wliich  are 
produced  in  the  largest  amount,  is  a  variety  of  fruit,  most  de- 
licious, of  which  tlu^  greatc^st  variety  of  ))reserves  are  made, 
and  of  wliich  W(^  hav(^  liardly  any  i(U\i.  It  is  cuiif)us  to  see 
how,  all  the  woi'ld  over,  the  plants  which  pr(nhice  fruit  belong 
to  particular  families.  If  we  compjire,  a  moment,  the  fruit 
trees  and  fruits  of  the  tropical  regions  with  ours,  then;  is  the 
most  striking  contrast.  Most  of  our  fruits  belong  to  one  and 
the  same  n.atural  family  of  the  vegetable  king(hun — the  rose 
family.  Cherries,  jjcaches,  ])lums,  apricots,  iipi)les,  and  jx^ju's, 
in  fact,  the  choicest  of  our  fruits  belong  to  that  family.  It  is 
only  a  few  other  kinds  of  native  fniits  that  belong  to  other 
families,  such  as  the  walnut,  and  then  the  gra])e  vines,  of 
which  Ave  have  a  great  variety  anung  the  native,  while  in  the 
old  world  there  is  one  kind  only.  Now  in  tlu^  valley  of  the 
Amazon  the  principal  fruits  belong  to  the  myrtle  family.  Tlierc! 
is  as  great  a  variety  of  fi'uits  belonging  to  that  family  as  wo 
have  in  the  rose  family.  The  Gojiaha  (Spanish  G'i((ic<i),  which 
you  may  know  from  the  presence  of  that  name  which  you 
get  from  Cuba,  is  one  of  the  most  connuon  trees  all  over  that 
region  ;  but  they  have,  also,  numerous  fruits  similar  to  ours. 
Plums  grow  in  immense  quantities  on  the  banks  of  all  this  net- 
work of  rivers  throughout  the  valley  of  the  Amazon.  AjuI 
then  other  families  produce  fniits.  You  are  familiar  with  the 
magnolia,  and  know  that  it  produces  a  dry  fruit  that  has  no 
taste.  Now,  there  is  a  family  akin  to  that  in  lirazil  which  j)ro- 
duces  a  great  variety  of  luscious  fruits.  There  are  scleral 
kmds  of  fruit  prodiiced  by  another  family  which  are  most  de- 
licious ;  but  I  will  oidy  entertain  you  at  intervals  w  ith  these, 
for  there  are  other  articles  which  are  of  more  importance  to 
the  connnerce  of  the  world. 

"  In  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  llun'e  is  grown  an  iiimiense 
amount  of  cotiee.  Its  culture  extends  over  the  northern  prov- 
inces of  Brazil,  and  also  over  Ceara  ;  and  the  production  of 
this  i^lant  is  so  great  in  that  coinitry  that  })robably  its  yield  is 
greater  there  than  anywhere  else.  The  chocolate  we  derive 
from  a  ])lant  grown  there  in  immense  (piantitiis.  It  is  the 
cocoa  plant  (c((vdo),  Avhich  grows  in  all  thesi^  forests,  and  ])ro- 
duces  a  fruit  somewhat  like  a  cucumber,  but  larger,  in  which 


f 


ly 


*t 


m 


30G 


rNTI.UrN'CE   OF  CLIMATE. 


tho  ffiTfit  snod  aro  now  p-owin^i^.  These  seed  are  tulvfii  out 
■vvheii  rj])e,  dried  and  prepan-d,  and  it  is  from  tli(>se  seed  that 
the  various  pre])aratio!is  of  cocoa  are  made.  Tlicn  then;  is 
anotlier  fruit  very  extensively  cultivated  ihere,  v/hich  ])roduc(>s 
ii  cooling  hf^verage,  of  Avhich  tlu^  ]3iazihans  arc  very  fond.  It 
is  something  hkc  chocolate.  Its  cultivation  covers  extensive^ 
areas  bctwc^'n  the  Madeira  and  the  Tajiajos.  ]>ut  thi^  f^reat 
stapk'S  of  that  c<mntry  are  the  dyestutVs  and  a  variety  of  me- 
dicinal drufjjs  ;  the  sarsai)arllla,  the  ipecac,  and  tho  {■hhuoiin, 
M'hi(  h  is  so  extensively  used  in  thc^  manufacture  of  quinine, 
Mi,L!;ar,  and  the  most  valuable  of  all  the  productions  is  india- 
rubbei'.  The  india-rubber  is  obtained  from  a  tree  wliicli  grows 
in  the  subuierj^cd  I'inds.  The  india-rublier  of  South  America 
is  ])rinci]>ally  tho  product  of  a  euphorluaceous  phint — S'plionin 
rliisficd.  A\'e  have  hardly  a  plant  of  that  family  to  compar(> 
■with  it  vhicli  is  at  all  similar  in  aspect.  It  is  ])erha]is  more 
like  the  nnilberi'v,  and  may  be  compared  to  it,  thou<;h  it  j^i'ows 
taller,  and  do(>s  not  s])read  so  much.  A  wound  is  made  in  tlie 
bark  of  the  tree  by  cutting  it,  and  the  sa])  which  flows  from  it 
is  collected  into  a  nuuiber  of  cups,  made  of  the  leaves  of  trees, 
and  is  then  poured  into  a  larger  vessel,  dried,  smoked  and  pre- 
])ared  in  the  way  in  which  you  sec  it  in  commerce.  Thus  far 
india-rvd)ber  has  only  been  collected  accidentally.  Nowhere  is 
it  cultivated  ;  and  it  is  (me  of  the  miseries  c»f  the  country  that 
all  the  natural  productioiis  are  still  in  their  wild  condition,  and 
liav(;  nowhere  received  th(^  culture  which  their  importance 
W(ml(l  necessarily  conuijand.  The  consinpu'nce  of  this  mode 
of  collection  is  the  extraordinar}'  methods  connected  with  it. 
The  laborers  go  into  tho  forest  to  collect  it,  and  tap  tho  trees 
in  the  most  irregular  mnman',  and  when  they  collect  the  sap 
ther(!  aro  many  trees  Avhieh  thty  pass  lumoticed.  In  that  way 
an  immense  (piantity  of  the  material  is  wasted.  I  have  been 
told  that  any  one  wlio  would  follow  in  the  ordinary  track  of 
these  collectors  of  india-rubber  would  thid  as  rich  a  harvest  as 
those  who  made  the  first  collection.  And  so  it  is  .vith  all  the 
natural  ]iroductions  of  the  country.  The  ]3razili:in  nuts  (fruit 
oi BcrdioJlcfhi  fXccl-sK), which  are  so  (.xtiMisively  itsed  in  the  "West, 
and  of  which  tlu^  lira/ihans  nuvnufacture  very  excellent  oil — 
these  nuts,  which  arc  produci-'d  from  fruit  about  the  size  of  yonr 
two  fists,  fall  to  the  ground,  and  are  also  collecttnl  at  random  ; 
and  I  have  l)een  told  bv  one  of  the  most  intellitrent  men  con- 
nected  with  the  triule  of  the  Amazon,  that  he  was  satislied  that 
annually  about  !irll),()()O,00()  worth  of  the  natural  i)ioducts  of 
th(*  Amazon  reuiained  rotting  on  the  groinid  from  want  of 
hands  to  collect  them,  wheu,  if  there  was  an  industrioiis  j-opu- 
lation,  all  this  wealth  would  bo  saved.     And  if  the  population 


Ill 


ECUADOR — C'lima'jt;,  etc. 


307 


was  sufliciontly  cxtciisivo  Ui  ciiltivati'  n';^'ul;ivl_v  tlioso  v;ilu;il»lo 
))r()(liu-ti()iis,  you  SCO  ut  oiuhi  wluit  iiiiucs  of  wcnltli  would  How 
into  the  connncrco  of  the  AvorUl. 

"  But  tlu^  iirst  rcquisiti'  is  that  tlipvc  sliall  \)c  ••  s'lttlcd  popu- 
lation, and  a  ))opulation  living'  ix'^ularly.  The  population  which 
now  occupit.'S  that  valley  is  indolent,  is  irrej^'ulai-  in  its  modi'  of 
lifo,  and,  m  conscipicnci'  of  that,  liahh^  to  diseases  v.hieh  an; 
uHcrihcd  to  the  unhejdthy  cliiiiate.  Tor  what  i-ould  he  expected 
of  a  population  which  p;oes  into  the  wood  with  an  inihttV'rent 
supi)ly  of  food,  and  that  of  a  poor  (luality,  and  will  remain  in  the 
wet,  will  alhnv  tlK-insclves  to  l)e  )'ained  upon  without  takin,!^'  any 
2)recauti(ni  Tor  chan;^e,  hut  that,  after  a  while,  tluy  would  jj;et 
iewv  or  rhcunnitism,  and  all  other  disoas(>s  svhich  carelessness 
and  poor  UhhI  l)rin<^'  on,  and  which  ar(^  universally  charjjjed  to 
the  climate?  The  Iirst  stej)  toward  im[)i'ovin<^f  Lrazil  should 
he  regular  settkuuents — settlements  on  these  neat  !)anks  which 
rise  regularly  ahovc  the  level  of  the  water,  and  which  are  so 
inviting,  not  (udy  on  account  of  the  variety  of  vegetation,  hut 
on  account  of  the  picturcs(|ue  nninner  in  which  the  rivers  inter- 
sect tlies(!  intiuitc  forests.  There  is  (me  feature  which  is  2)ar- 
ticularly  charming.  It  is  the  narrow  channels  of  -Wi^Jer. which 
cut  through  the  i'ort'sts,  sometimes  so  narrow  that  tlu>  hr...'ichcs 
meet  together  and  form  a.  closed  arch  over  the  water,  some- 
times so  close  that  the*  smallest  boats  tind  it  dilUcult  to  follow 
their  courses.  All  these  constitute  one  of  the  great  chariiis  of 
that  region,  to  which  y»ni  may  a(hl  tlu;  interest  arising  from  the 
immense  variety  of  animals  of  all  classes  which  mingle  in  this 
luxuriant  vogetatitm." 

Climate  and  Physical  Features  of  Ecuador. 

The  great  feature  of  this  country,  extending  from  2^  north 
to  G -^  south  latitude,  i.'  tla^  stupendous  chain  of  the  Andes, 
w'hicli  traverses  it  in  a  douhle  chain,  running  north  and  north- 
east, in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  at  an  aver- 
age distance  from  it,  on  the  west  chain,  of  IK)  miles.  The  two 
ridges  are  distan)  from  each  other  generally  from  20  to  2-1 
miles,  sometimes  receding  and  sometimes  approximating,  hut 
always  ])reserving  nearly  the  same  direction.  The  elevated 
I'lain  between  them  is  from  live  to  six  leagues  in  breadth;  and 
within  its  narrow  bounds  is  concentrated  the  population  of  the 
])r(,)vince  of  Quito.  From  the  paramo  of  Assuay,  which,  rising 
from  14,701  feet  to  15,7-10  feet,  iniites,  like  an  enormous  dike, 
the  East  and  West  Andes,  under  the  parallel  of  2  liO'  south, 
37  leagues  to  the  south  of  (Juito,  the  Ajides,  as  we  proceed 
north  to  (^uito,  present  the  appearance  of  a  longitudinal  valley, 
lined  with  a  constant  succession  of  soaring  summits  vn  the  east 


ii. 


^' 


f  '.i:. 


if        1 


i* 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


and  west.  "NVliiit  is  ciilled  tli(>  vulloy  or  ])liiiu  of  Quito  is  nctu- 
ullv  an  Andean  ridj^'o  of  an  ahsolnto  hci^'lit  of  from  8,Sf50  to 
l),r)15  foot.  Tho  i^roat  niouutaiiiH,  tlioii^di  aj^pcaring  (jnly  as  so 
ninny  isolated  tops  of  this  suiiunit,  when  viewed  from  tiie  dis- 
tant })hiins,  yet  seem  to  thi;  inhal.utants  of  tiie  eeiitral  vaU;  of 
(^uito  as  so  many  distinct  monntains  risin<,'  from  a  plain  un- 
clothed by  forests;  and  are  so  arran^'ed  that,  vi(!wed  from  the 
eontral  ])laiii,  they  appear  in  their  natural  shape,  as  ii'  projeeted 
in  the  azure  vault  of  the?  (equatorial  sUy.  After  the  loji;^  rahis 
oi  winter,  when  tlie  trans[)arency  of  the  air  has  suddenly 
increase.',  Chimborazo  (altitudi\  21,500  feeti  jm^sents  a  most 
niagnilient  speetaele,  a])pi'a]in«,^  from  the  shores  of  the  Paidiic, 
lik(!  a  white  cloud  on  the  ed^'e  of  the  horizon,  detaching  itself 
from  the  neif-hboring  summits,  and  soaring  with  commanding 
majesty  over  the  whole  chain  of  the  Andes.  Between  the 
Andes  and  the  Pacific  the  surface  occasionally  rises  into  mount- 
ains, 1)ut  presents  no  conthnious  ridge. 

The  principal  rivers  descending  from  the  west  slope  of  the 
Andes  to  the  Pacific  are,  in  their  order  from  north  to  south, 
the  Pati.t,  and  its  affluent  the  Telembi,  the  Mira,  the  Santiago, 
the  liio  Verde,  the  Pio  Esmeraldas,  the  Ciiones,  the  Guaya- 
quil, and  its  great  ailiuent  the  Danle,  the  Navanjea,  Juboues, 
and  Tumbez.  The  country  to  the  east  of  the  Andes,  is,  in 
gTcat  part,  a  vast  d<>sert,  over  which  yet  roam  only  wild  h(jrdes 
of  Indians.  It  is  intersected  by  several  vast  streams,  the  upper 
courses  of  still  mightier  rivers,  all  pursuing  a  direction  prevail- 
ingly to  the  southwest  to  join  the  mighty  (.)rellana,  or  Amazon, 
on  its  left  bank.  These  streams  are  the  Pulumayo,  or  I^'a, 
with  all  its  head  branches  ;  the  Rio  Napo,  with  its  great  head 
streams  the  Ahuaricu  and  the  Curaray,  and  its  hundred  minor 
affluents. 

Clhnafc,  (f'c. — "Although  this  country  lies  under  the  Equa- 
tor, yet  the  great  elevation  of  its  central  valley,  jind  of  the 
western  table-lands,  renders  the  climate  of  those  sections  mild 
and  temi)erate.  In  the  low  country,  along  the  coast,  the  heat 
is  excessive,  and  the  climate  dangerous  to  foreigners.  Under 
tropics,  what  are  usually  termed  winter  and  summer,  mean  only 
the  wet  and  dry  seasons  ;  and  the  former  is  often  superior  in 
warmth.  The  dry  season  may  bo  regarded  as  the  coldest  and 
the  most  healthy.  At  Guayaquil,  the  rainy  season  continues 
from  January  to  June  ;  and  the  dry,  from  June  to  December. 
The  inundations  at  this  pcaiod  are  so  great  that  the  coast  at 
Guayaquil  is  often  one  sheet  of  water  up  to  the  base  of  the 
Andes,  to  which  the  inhabitants  retire  with  their  herds.  Fevers, 
diarrhavas,  dysenteries,  vomiting,  and  sp>abms,  then  prevail,  and 
the  mortality  is  often  very  gi*eat.     The  temperature  of  the  aii- 


VEGETATION  IN  ECUADOR. 


309 


!i; 


at  Oufiyaquil  is  so  uniformly  between  OC^  and  101'^  tliat  tho 
peopio  c-()iii[)l!iin  of  cold  ^vlu•n  tlu;  thoDuoniotor  suddiMily  falls 
to  HO^  or  S4  '.  At  Popayan,  in  tho  interior  of  Now  (Jri'inuda, 
the  driest  months  are  June,  July,  and  August,  when  tho  south 
winds  lilow  from  tlu^  snowy  mountains  and  paramo  of  Purasi. 
On  the  tal)li!-land  from  (^uito  to  i*(;payan  it  may  he  said  to  l)o 
an  eternal  spring;,  th(;  temp(;r.'ituro  being  uniform  during  tho 
whole  year,  notwithstanding  th;it  violent  storms  of  thunder  and 
lightning  fretpiently  oceur.  On  the  declivity  of  the  Andes, 
from  ;{,()()0  to  5,()UU  feet  in  height,  a  soft  spring  temperaturo 
perpetually  reigns,  never  varying  more  than  7^  or  8^  Fahr.  Tho 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  unknown,  the  mean  heat  of  tho 
whole  year  being  here  fi'om  GS'  to  70  '.  The  climate  is  an 
eternal  spring,  at  once  benign  and  equal ;  and  even  during  tho 
four  rainy  months  tho  mornings  and  evenings  are  clear  and 
beautiful.  Vegetation  never  ceases  in  the  '  evergreen  Quito.' 
The  'nhal)itants  of  our  wintry  climes  seo  v/ith  astonishment  tho 
plough  and  the  sickle  at  once  in  activity  ;  herbs  of  the  same 
species  here  fading  Avith  age,  there  just  beginning  to  bud  ;  one 
flower  drooping,  and  its  sister  unfolding  its  beauties  to  the  sun. 
Standing  on  an  eminence,  the  spectator  here  beholds  the  tinta 
of  s])ring,  summer  and  autumn  blended,  while  above  these  ver- 
dant hills  and  flowery  vales  rise  tho  lofty  cones  of  the  Andes, 
clad  in  eternal  snows,  or  frowui .  >.:,  with  naked  rocks.  Under 
the  equator,  it  has  been  calculated  that  heat  near  the  terres- 
trial surface  diminishes  one  degree  of  Fahrenheit's  scale  for 
every  333  feet  of  peri)endieular  elevation.  At  10,000  feet  of 
elevai'on,  one  degree  of  heat  is  lost  for  every  207  feet ;  and  at 
the  height  of  20,000  feet,  one  degree  for  318  feet.'"  The  mean 
temperaiure  of  the  table-land  of  South  America,  at  diflerent 
points,  is  the  following  :  At  Quito,  50^;  Bogota,  CO"";  Loxa,  GC°; 
Pojiayan,  05  ;  whilst  at  Caraccas  it  is  70  ,  and  at  Valencia,  78^. 
On  the  plains  of  tho  Ormoco,  elevated  500  feet,  though  the  high 
tempertiture  is  115"^,  yet  the  medium  temperature  is  78'.  Tho 
mean  heat  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  80-*,  and  that  of  the  Atlantic 
coast,  82".  The  mean  heat  of  the  interior  of  South  America 
is  80°,  that  of  the  plain  of  Venezuela  being  85'^  Fahr.  Wo 
have  thus  three  climates — that  of  the  coasts,  the  interior,  and 
the  high  table-lands." 

Vvijrtafioit. — ''In  the  region  of  palms,  tho  natives  here  culti- 
vate the  banana,  jatropha,  maize,  and  cocoa  ;  and  Europeans 
have  introduced  the  sugar-cane  and  indigo  phtnt.    After  passing 


1: 

if 


*  This  estimate  clisa,<ri'c(^s  with  recent  observations  made  in  temperate  cli^ 
mates,  where  the  decrement  is  found  to  lie  about  1"  Fahr.  for  every  400  feet 
ascent. 


1: 


i 


i 


m 


I' 


310 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


tlio  altitude  of  3,100  feet  all  these  plants  become  rare,  auc'l  only 
prosper  in  particular  situatious,  Tims,  tlic  sugar-cane  lias 
been  grown  even  at  the  height  of  7,500  feet ;  and  coli'eo  and 
cotton  extt'ud  across  l)oth  these  regions.  The  cultivation  of 
wheat  commences  at  3,000  feet,  but  its  growth  is  not  com})letely 
estiiblished  lower  than  1,500  feet  ai:)ove  this  Imo.  Uarley  is 
the  most  vigorous  o*-'  the  cerealia  cultivated  in  these  regions, 
and  nourishes  at  an  altitude  of  (),000  feet,  one  year  with 
anotlier  producing  t^venty-tive  or  thirty  fold.  Above  5,400  feet 
the  fruit  of  the  banana  does  not  easily  ripen  ;  but  the  plant  i^; 
met  with,  altlumgh  m  a  feeble  condition,  2,100  feet  Jiigher. 
The  region  com})rehended  betwetm  4,020  and  5,100  feet  is  the 
one  which  princi])ally  boiinds  with  the  cocoa  ;  a  few  leaves  of 
which,  mixed  witli  quic  Xmc,  support  the  Indian  in  his  longest 
journeys  across  the  Cordillera.  It  is  at  the  elevation  of  0,000 
and  0,000  feet  that  tlie  cltcnopof/itint  (/ninoa  and  the  various 
grains  of  Europe  are  principally  cultivated,  a  circumstance 
greatly  favored  by  the  extensive  plains  that  exist  at  this  alti- 
tude, the  soil  of  which  requires  little  labor,  resembling  the  bot- 
tom of  ancient  lakes.  At  a  height  of  0,000  or  10,200  feet  frost 
and  hail  often  destroy  the  wheat.  Indian  corn  is  seldom  culti- 
vated above  the  elevation  of  7,200  feet.  1,000  feet  higher  the 
potato  is  produced,  but  it  ceases  at  12,000  feet.  At  about 
10,200  feet  barley  no  longer  grows  ;  rye  only  is  sown  ;  although 
even  this  grain  suffers  from  a  want  of  heat.  Above  11,040  feet 
all  culture  and  gardening  cease,  and  man  dwells  in  the  midst  of 
flocks  of  lamas,  sheep,  and  oxen,  which,  wandering  from  each 
other,  are  often  lost  in  the  region  of  perpetual  snow." 

Climate  of  Bolivia. 

This  elevated  portion  of  South  America,  sometimes  called 
UprER  Peiiu,  lies  between  the  parallels  of  10^  and  25 '40'  south 
latitude.  "  The  western  ludf  of  Bolivia  is  occupied  by  pro- 
digious mountain  ranges,  and  elevated  table-lands,  which 
stretch  towards  the  centre  of  the  country.  On  the  extrenu; 
north,  and  all  along  tlie  east  and  south  frontier,  we  meet  with 
vast  plains — here  bare  grassv  steppes,  there  covered  with  ma- 
jestic primeval  forests — through  which  How  the  head  waters  of 
the  Amazon  and  the  La  Plata,  themselves,  in  many  instances, 
large  rivers.  The  AhurnDu,  or  coast  district,  is  a  mere  desert, 
sterile  and  featureless  to  the  roots  of  the  Andes  as  the  Sahara 

itself. 

"  The  mountains  of  Bolivia  are  a  portion  of  the  system  of 
the  Andes,  here  rising  to  a  great  height.  The  majtjstic  peaks 
of  the  Sorata  (altitude,  22,40(1  feeti  and  the  IlUmani  (21,250 
feet)  belong  to  the  Andes  of  Bolivia.     The  great  plateau,  ou 


CLIMATE  AND  SURFACE  OF  PERU. 


311 


hus 

illUl 


ou 


AvLioli  tlio  lake  of  Titicaca  reposes  its  vast  expanse  of  water,  at 
an  altitude  of  12,795  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Paeitii-,  may  be 
regarded  as  belongiuf^'  to  the  mountain  system  of  the  Andes, 
and  as  tVn'uiing  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the 
country." 

C'liiiiofc  and  Prod  He!  ions, — "  Piain  seldom  falls  ou  the  Ata- 
cama  coast,  which  seems  to  be  so  scantily  sup})liud  with  water 
tiiat  it  can  never  exchange  its  present  desert  state  for  the 
clothing  and  verdure  of  cultivation.  The  great  tal)li'-land  o+' 
Titicaca  lias  a  mean  temperature  of  45"'  Fahr.,  and  from  No 
vember  to  April  enjoys  delightfully  refreshing  showers.  Her(^ 
the  pasture  is  rich,  and  nunnaous  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are 
r(\ared  ;  but  the  tropical  fruilf;  are  unknown. 

"  The  ttuuperaturo  of  the  great  plains  on  the  northeast  and 
southern  frontiers  of  Lolivia  is  most  o])])ressive ;  and  l)eing 
combined  with  great  humidity,  these  districts  are  often  highly 
insaluljrious.  Here  cotton,  indigo,  rice,  cocoa,  oranges,  pine- 
apples, and  all  the  tropical  fruits  grow  freely.  Around  Potosi, 
elevated  i;i,oOU  feet,  the  temperature  varies  greatly  throughout 
the  day.  Early  in  the  morning  it  is  cold  and  piercing.  The 
forenoon  is  pleasant ;  an  .1  from  noon  till  o  r.  :m.  it  is  generally 
very  hot  in  the  sun  ;  wh  .le  the  evenings  are  usually  serene  and 
mild.'' 

Peni — Its  Climate  and  Surface. 

PeFiU,  extending  along  the  Pacitie  coast  from  d-'30'  to  22^ 
south  latitude,  is  traversed  througlunit  its  entire  length  l)y  the 
lofty  chain  of  the  Andes,  running  from  nortlnvest  to  southeast, 
ami  fo^'ming  tv>o  grand  ridg<}s,  which  divide  the  country  into 
three  widely  dili'erent  i)liysit'al  ri^gions,  viz.,  the  Coast,  the  Cen- 
tral, and  the  Eastern  regions. 

'•  The  Western  or  Coast  Pegion,  between  the  Andes  and  the 
ocean,  is  rarely  more  than  GU  miles  wide.  It  con^ists  of  an 
arid,  rainless,  and  ])arren  district,  eoA'ered  with  sand,  and  inter- 
sectetl  by  chains  of  hillocks  that  cross  it  fiom  east  to  Avest.  In 
some  ])l:ices  of  this  district  no  rahi  has  fallen  in  the  memory  of 
man;  but  above  the  level  of  500  feet  slight  showers  occasioii- 
ally  occur.  The  scanty  vegetation  is  sustained  by  dews  and 
dense  fogs,  or  by  artiiicial  irrigation.  The  climate  is  sultry 
and  unhealthy.  There  is  no  navigable  stream  exce^jt  tins  Piura  ; 
and  the  few  towns  are  generally  situated  close  to  the  coast. 
The  Central  llegion,  or  Montana,  consists  of  a  lofty  jrlateau,  of 
about  12,000  feet  of  average  elevaticm,  Avhich,  thcaigli  ditlicult 
of  access  from  the  coast,  contains  numerous  cities  and  villages, 
owing  to  the  coolness  and  humidity  of  the  clinuite  at  low  levels. 
Amongst  the  mountains  are  many  favored  spots,  with  a  fertile 


il 


!i 


a 


^! 


312 


mnXTENCE   OF  CLIiL\TE. 


Mi 


i 

! 


ir 


soil,  amid  the  most  magnificent  sceneiy  on  tlio  earth's  surface, 
(mjoyin^^  a  temperate  and  dehp;htfal  climate.  The  Eastern 
Ke<,non  consists  of  immense  fertile  plains,  traversed  by  the 
head  waters  of  the  Amazon,  and  covered  with  gigantic  forests, 
\vb.ieh  extend  up  the  ynountain  sides  to  upwards  of  5,000  feet. 
The  climate  hero  is  very  humid,  the  crests  of  the  ^Vndes  inter- 
cepting the  equatorial  v.inds,  Avhich  come  laden  with  moisture 
from  the  distant  Atlantic,  causing,  in  some  places,  almost 
incessant  rain.  This  region  of  country  is  very  imperfectly 
known  to  foreigners ;  but  the  opening  of  the  Amazon  river  to 
the  commerce  of  the  world  will  induce  adventurers  and  emi- 
grants to  visit  this  fertile  and  romantic  portion  of  South 
America,  where,  at  high  elevations,  arc  to  be  found  rich  mines 
of  gold  and  silver." 

DISTANCES  FROM  PARA,  BRAZIL,  TO  JAEN,  PERU. 


From  Para  (1-21'  South  latitude),  to— 

Obydos, 

GOO  miles. 

Maxaos, 

.     1,000    " 

Aga,  or  Tcffe, 

.     1,000     " 

Tabatinja, 

.     2,200     " 

Jaen,  Peru  (5^^  South  latitude),      . 

.    2,500    " 

Climate  and  Productions  of  Paraguay. 

The  Republic  of  Paraguay  is  included  mostly  between  19^ 
and  27^30'  south  latitude,  and  nearly  enclosed  by  the  Parana 
and  Paraguay  rivers.  On  the  north  it  has  the  Brazilian  prov- 
ince of  Matto  Grosso.  The  above  large  rivers,  interlocking 
with  tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  form  the  liio  de  Ja  Plata,  the 
second  river  in  magnitude  in  South  America.  The  territory  of 
Paraguay  is  about  470  miles  in  length,  and  200  miles  in  breadth ; 
area  estimated  at  8-4,000  square  miles,  containing  a  population 
of  ivbout  1,000,000  souls.  The  inhabitants  are  a  warlike 
people,  chiefly  the  descendants  of  Europe'\ns  fi'om  the  north  of 
Span},  with  native  Indians  and  negroes. 

A  mountain  range  of  considerable  elevation  stretches  nearly 
througli  the  centre  of  the  country  from  north  to  south,  between 
■  he  j  .iraua  and  Paraguay,  sending  the  drainage  in  opposite 
V  li  .'ections.  From  the  mountain  regions  the  surface  first  pre- 
sents a  succession  of  lincly  diversified  lower  heights,  and  then 
stretches  out  into  rich  alluvial  plains  of  great  fertility.  Asun- 
cion, the  capital  of  Paraguay,  is  situated  on  a  height  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  l*araguay  river,  in  south  latitude  25  IH',  being 
650  miles  north  of  Buenos  Ayres.  Although  mostly  sur- 
rounded by  Brazil,  this  country  can  ouly  be  reached  by  a  hos- 
tile foe,  to  advantage,  by  the  Bio  de  la  Plata,  which  is  navi- 
gable for  a  large  class  of  vessels. 


nil  \i 

Ik 


CLEMATE  AND   PRODUCTIONS  OF  rAU.VGUAY. 


313 


Climafr,  rfr. — Tlio  climate,  for  tlio  most  part  tropical,  lias  its 
heat  greatly  motUtiecl  by  the  inequalities  of  the  Hurfiice.  lii 
Jul .  and  August  occasionally  frosts  occur.  The  whole  country 
is  remarkable  for  its  salubrity.  The  soil  is  of  great  fertility, 
and  vegetation  aliuost  unrivaled  iji  its  luxuriance.  In  ilie  for- 
ests are  found  a])out  100  difterent  kinds  of  trees,  furnishing 
timber,  dyewoods,  gums,  drugs,  perfumes,  oils,  fruit,  ttc.  A 
principal  product  is  the  pcrlxi  iikiIc,  or  Paraguay  tea,  an  ever- 
green, the  leaf  of  which  is  nearly  as  much  used  for  infusion, 
in  this  and  the  neighbcn'ing  countries  of  South  America,  as  the 
Chinese  tea  in  the  United  States.  The  plant  grows  to  the 
height  of  about  a  foot  and  a  half,  and  has  slender  branches, 
with  leaves  resembling  those  of  senna.  The  olijects  of  agri- 
culture include  the  greater  part  of  the  most  valuable  products 
both  of  troj)ical  and  temperate  zones.  On  all  the  alluvial 
tracts  Avhere  cultivation  is  attempted,  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
tobacco  of  superior  (juality,  rice,  maize,  and  culinary  vegeta- 
bles yield  a  rich  return.  The  large  ])lains  feed  immense  herds 
of  cattle,  which  are  slanghtercd  chietl}'  for  their  tallow,  hides, 
and  horns,  as  articles  of  export. 

Animal  KhvjiJom. — The  wild  animals  of  Paraguay  include 
most  all  the  species  peculiar  to  South  America  (except  tlui 
])dxe  Ijoi,  or  sea-cow  of  the  Amazon  valley),  of  which  Prof. 
Agassiz  remarks  .  "  As  a  whole,  they  are  far  inlVu'ior  to  the  wild 
animals  of  Asia  and  Africa."  The  most  jirominoit  are  the 
jaguar,  or  tiger,  of  which  there  arc  great  nundx'rs;  the  puniM, 
or  cougar,  called,  also,  the  American  lion  ;  the  black  bear,  and 
ant-eater,  the  tapir,  the  ca])ibara  or  water-pig,  river  cavies,  and 
various  other  amjihibious  animals.  Alligators  are  numerous  in 
the  river  Paraguay,  and  have  been  seen  30  feet  in  length.  The 
Avild  boar,  deer,  and  other  species  of  animals  less  known, 
inhabit  the  forests.  The  boa-constrictor  is  IVmnd  in  most 
places  adjoining  the  rivers.  Among  the  feathered  aibe  arc  tlio 
cassowary,  or  Amerii-an  ostrich,  the  peacock,  parrots  of  vari- 
ous species,  parofinets,  goldtinclu^s,  nightingales,  and  several 
species  of  the  humming-bird.  AVild  geese  and  ducks  al)0und 
in  the  rivers  and  lakes ;  and  there  is,  also,  a  bird  called  tho 
toucan,  resembling  tlu^  crow,  but  having  a  very  long  beak, 
Avhich  is  most  beautifully  variegated  with  streaks  of  red,  ^-ellow, 
and  black. 

A  remarkable  circumstance  in  regard  to  tho  Animal  and 
Vegetable  Kingdom  is  the  fact  that  they  arc  both  most  wonder- 
fully influenced  by  chmato,  in  all  its  ]ihases,  as  you  proceed 
from  the  Equator  to  either  of  the  Earth's  poles. 


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iNixuEXCE  OF  cr^nrATE. 


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Tlie  Pampas  and  Llanos  of  Sonth  America. 

Next  to  tlio  Andes  of  South  Aiuorica,  tlic  pampas  ami 
n.-'iios,  wliic'li  extend  tlirou,!L;li  tlu^  centre  of  tlio  continent  from 
\'eneziiclH  to  Buenos  Ayres,  are  of  the  <j;reatest  interest.  They 
lie  mainly  to  tho  east  of  tlio  Andes,  along  the  head  sources  of 
the  Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  liio  de  la  Plata.  TIu;  immense 
plain  of  tho  latter  stream,  in  connection  with  the  Paraj^nioy 
liver,  extends  from  the  mountains  of  Brazil  (m  the  north,  and 
tho  Andes  on  tho  west,  to  near  tho  Atlantic  ocean  on  tlu;  south- 
east, includinff  a  great  part  of  Bolivia  and  tho  Argentine  C'on- 
lech'ration.  A  lar^^'o  portion  of  this  re.^ion  is  known  by  the 
nanio  of  tho  paiiipas.  These  are  plains  which  present  one  imi- 
form  I'xpanso  of  wavini^  <i,-rass,  uninterru])ted  either  hy  forest 
or  (,'mincnce.  Tlu^y  commence  lifty  to  one  hundred  miles  easf: 
of  the  Piio  do  la  Plata,  and  are  in  some  places  parched  and 
l)arren,  in  others  fertile,  and  mostly  uninhahited.  Thev  aro 
the  abode  of  innumerable  herds  of  wild  cattle,  horses,  ostriches, 
and  other  animals,  which,  under  tin;  shade  of  tlio  grass,  find 
protection  from  the  intolerable  heat  of  the  sun  during  the  warm 
season.  They  extend  westward  to  the  Chilian  frontier.  Over 
these  pam])as,  as  in  the  Piussirai  and  Tartarian  steppes,  there 
aro  no  landmarks  for  many  hundred  miles,  so  that  tra-sellers 
are  obliged  to  pursue  their  route  l)y  tho  (;omi)ass.  Tho  winds 
which  often  sweep  over  these  extensive  plains  v>ith  great  vio- 
lence, aro  called  pampciro.'^. 

The  llanos',  which  aro  more  elevated  plains,  aro  thus  described 
by  a  h>arned  and  eloquent  traveller:  "There  is  something 
awful,  but  sad  and  gloomy  in  the  uniform  asjiect  of  these 
steppes.  Everything  there  seems  motionless.  Seldom  docs  a 
small  cloud,  as  it  crosses  the  zenith,  and  announces  the  ap- 
proach of  tho  rainy  season,  cast  its  shadow  on  tho  savannah. 
I  know  not  whether  the  first  aspect  of  the  llanos  excites  less 
astonishment  than  that  of  the  abides.  Mountainous  ecmntries, 
Avhatever  may  be  the  absolute  elevati  n  of  tho  highest  sum- 
mit, have  an  analogous  physiogomy ,  but  we  accustom  t)ur- 
selves  with  difliculty  to  the  view  of  the  llanos  of  Venezuela  and 
Casanare,  or  the  pampas  of  Buenos  Ayri'S  and  Chaco,  which 
recall  to  mind  continually,  during  journeys  of  twenty  or  thirty 
days,  tho  smooth  surface  of  the  ocean.  Owing  to  the  une(|ual 
mass  of  vapors  diil'used  through  the  atmosphere",  and  tho  vari- 
ous temperatures  of  the  dili'erent  strata  of  air,  the  horizon  was 
in  some  parts  close  and  distinct  ;  in  others,  mululating,  sinu- 
ous, and  as  if  striped — the  heaven  was  there  conftmnded  with 
tho  sky.  The  ll'mos  and  ]>iiii,jiii^  of  South  xVmerica  aro  real 
steppes.  T'hey  di'>play  a  beautiful  verdm'o  in  tlu^  rainy  season  ; 
but  in  continued  drought,  a;5sume  the  aspect  of  a  desert." 


i!!!:; 


PART    XV. 

TEMrERATE  AND  COED  ZONES  OF  SOUTH 

A)lEliI('A. 


Buenos  Ayres,  or  the  Argentine  Confederation. 

This  is  ono  of  the  largest  and  most  iin])()rt;u)t  federativo 
Sfcjitos  in  Soiitli  Anierit'.'i,  ])ein;^'  very  favorably  situated  in  a 
climatic  and  commercial  ];oint  of  view.  Tlie  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  the  conntry  is  that  of  an  immense  level  ])lain  of  fertile 
soil,  and  divcrsiiied  by  only  a  few  slij^dit  elevations.  These 
plains  ]n'esent  one  uniform  expanse  of  wavinj:;  grass,  uninter- 
rupted by  either  wood  or  eminence,  somewhat  resembling  i:he 
prairies  of  North  America.  They  are  the  abode  of  innumerable 
animals,  Avhich,  under  tlu!  shade  of  the  grass,  find  i)rotet'tion 
from  the  intolerable  heat  of  the  sun  during  the  summer  months 
of  Ueceml)er,  Janiiary  and  February.  In  winter,  during  the 
months  of  June,  July  and  August,  it  is  reckoned  cold  when  the 
thermometer  falls  to  -15'  Fahr. ;  but  in  some  seasons  it  has 
fallen  as  low  as  30  '.  A  southwest  and  southeast  wind  always 
cool  the  air,  while  a  north  wind  invarial.)ly  brings  heat.  East 
and  north  winds  are  tlie  most  common.  Tlu^  southwest  wind 
is  always  l)racing  and  h(\dthy,  whiU'  the  north  wind  produces 
languor  and  headache.  During  the  summer  rains  are  frequent, 
and  are  commonly  accompanied  by  thunder  and  lightning. 
Long  continued  droughts  occasionally  occur,  at  intervals  of 
several  years,  followed  by  excessive  and  long  continued  rains. 

The  niost  striking  feature  in  the  scenery,  and  tljo  greatest 
disadvantage  itnder  which  this  region  labors,  is  the  almost 
entire  want  of  trees.  There  are  no  forests  in  this  i)art  of  South 
Anu'rica,  and  no  considerable  growth  of  wood.  It  is  not  easy 
to  account  for  this  absence  of  tiinber ;  for  the  su])])ly  of  moist- 
ure is  greater  than  in  many  regions  where  woodlands  abound. 
Darwin,  however,  sa^'s  "that  the  limit  of  the  forests  coincides, 
in  South  America,  with  that  of  the  region  over  which  the  damp 
Avinds  travel ;  Had  iclivrv  f/tci/  ijo  Jadcn  icif/i  vioislnir  from  l/ic 
ylfltoi/if  and  Facljic  oaan.i,  Ihc  coiudry  is  thicklj  covcral  icllJi 
wood" 


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316 


INFLUENCE  OF  CIJMATE. 


May  not  this  theory  satisfactorily  account  for  the  prairies 
and  want  of  wood  in  portions  of  Nortli  America,  and  the  desert 
regions  in  other  parts  of  the  world?  The  ponpas  of  South 
America  lie  near  the  centre  of  the  continent,  being  tlanked  by 
the  Andes,  as  are  the  prairies  of  the  United  States  by  the 
Iiocky  Mountains  ;  both  lying  under  similar  climatic  influences 
as  regards  elevation,  moisture,  temperature,  and  winds. 

Buenos  Ayres,  the  chief  city  of  the  Republic,  derives  its 
nan. I'}  from  the  peculiar  salubrity  of  its  climate.  It  is  situated 
in  31  ;)0'  south  latitude,  and  58 '23'  west  longitude,  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Ilio  de  la  Plata,  and  enjoys  a  foreign  and  iuhmd 
trade  of  growing  importance.  The  La  Plata,  which  rises  in 
the  centre  of  Brazil,  and  interlocks  with  the  iVmazon,  is  a  large 
and  noble  stream,  comparing  i'av(n'ably  with  the  St.  Lawrence 
river  of  North  America.  Its  mouth  is  upwards  of  100  jailes  in 
width,  and  furnishes  navigation  from  the  Atlantic  to  Asuncion, 
the  capital  of  Paraguay,  a  distance  of  about  1,500  miles  ;  its 
whole  length  being  abo)  .t  2,000  miles. 

The  following  Table  exhibits  the  mean  elevation  of  the 
Barometer  and  Thermometer  for  one  year  : 

MONTHS. 

January,    .... 

February, 

March,       .... 

April,  .... 

May,  .... 

»Tune,  .... 

July,  .... 

August,      .... 

September, 

October,     .... 

November, 

December, 

The  mean  temperature  for  the  year  was  62"  Falir, 

It  is  only  between  2-1^  and  48^  south  hititude,  on  the  Atlantic 
side  of  South  America,  running  through  the  sub-tropical  and 
temperate  zones,  ranging  from  40°  to  70"  mean  annual  tem})cr- 
ature,  that  the  white  race  can  with  safety,  in  regard  to  health 
and  life,  emigi-ate  to,  and  take  up  their  permanent  abode. 
This  region  of  country,  however,  is  in  many  respects  dissimilar 


MEAN  OP 

MAX.  TRMr. 

MEAN  TP 

BAKOMKTEH. 

'  Fiilir. 

"  Fahr 

.        29.50 

92 

72 

.    29.58 

89 

73 

.     29.01 

82 

71 

.     29.73 

78 

62 

.     29.70 

08 

58 

.     29.77 

06 

54 

.     29.05 

07 

53 

.     29.84 

06 

52 

.     29.74 

72 

55 

.    29.07 

81 

59 

.    29.01 

88 

68 

.     29.45 

86 

71 

CLIMA'Tl  ANT)  PRODUCTION'S  OF  CHILI. 


317 


to  the  same  latitudes  in  the  northcru  hemisphere,  as  the  pa/npus 
aro  far  inferior  to  the  prairies  of  the  United  States,  bein^^ 
better  adapted  to  pasturage  and  the  raising  of  cattle  than  the 
cereals.  It  embraces  Southern  Brazil,  Para^may,  Uruguay,  and 
Buenos  Ayrep,,  or  the  Argentine  Confederation.  Chili,  on  tlie 
Pacilic  side,  has  also,  for  the  most  part,  a  temperate  climatt'. 
Here  health  can  be  enjoyed,  and  life  prolonged  ;  Avhile  the  liio 
de  la  Plata  and  its  numerous  tributaries  ali'orel  uninterrupted 
navigation  during  the  whole  year,  draining  an  immense  and 
fertile  region  of  country,  abounding  in  large  forests,  contauiing 
many  kinds  of  valuable  wood,  and  rich  vegetable  productions. 

Climate  and  Productions  of  Chili. 

Tlie  Hcpublic  of  Chili,  lying  on  the  Pacific  side  of  South 
America,  runs  through  eighteen  degrees  of  latitude,  extending 
from  25-^  to  4))-^  soiith  latitude,  emln-acing  the  Chilian  Archi- 
pelago, Its  breadth  is  various,  being  determined  by  the 
greater  or  less  distance  of  tlie  summit  of  the  Andes  from  the 
ocean.  In  the  north  ])art  of  Chili  the  country  rises  in  a  scries 
of  succes.sive  terraces  from  the  coast  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes. 

3Io>'n('(iihs. — The  grand  belt  of  the  Andes  separates  Chili 
fi'om  the  provinces  of  the  La  Plata  ;  and  its  western  declivities 
occupy  a  considerable  ])ortion  of  the  surface.  Three  small 
ranges  likewise  extend  in  nearly  parallel  lines  between  the 
Andes  and  the  ocean.  Of  thes(>  parallel  lines  the  Peuquones 
lidge  is  considerably  liigher  than  the  others,  attaining  an 
elevation,  where  the  road  crosses  it  fro)n  Santiago  to  Men- 
doza,  by  the  pass  of  the  Portello,  of  18, "210  feet.  The  highest 
mountains  of  Chili  are  :  Manila,  in  south  latitude  28  -15';  Acon- 
cagua, in  32-;W'  (altitude,  2:},910  feet) ;  Tupcmgato,  in  ;^3  20'; 
l)escal)esado,  in  '6')  ;  Blanquillo,  in  Ij5  M';  Longavi,  in  35  30'; 
Chilian,  in  3(5^;  Antuco,  in  30  oO';  and  Corcovado,  in  43  11'. 
Molina  had  not  an  opportunity  of  taking  tlie  altitude  of  the 
above  mountains,  but  the  Chilenos  su]>pose  them  to  rise 
ujnvards  of  20,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Then^  are  no  fewer 
than  14  vohianoes  in  a  state  of  perpetual  (•oml)ustion  in  Chili, 
and  all  of  them  belong  to  the  main  ridge  of  the  Andes. 

C'iiiiah:  und  Smsou--^. — The  climate  of  ChiU  is  delightful  and 
salubrious.  The  four  seasons  oet-ur  here  as  regularly  as  in 
Europe,  though  in  inverse  order,  being  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sjihere.  Spring  commences  on  the  21st  of  September,  summer 
on  the  21st  of  December,  autumn  on  the  21st  of  March,  and 
winter  at  our  summer  solstice,  or  21st  of  June,  From  the  com- 
nienccmeut  of  spring  to  the  middle  of  autumn,  between  24' 


I  1 


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I  { 


II    «L 


ii 

H 


318 


IXFLUEXCE    OF  CLIJLVTE. 


^  9 


iXtlJ 


.'111(1  '50^  soutli  l:\tituclo,  tlio  sky  is  nlwavH  sorono,  it  being  raro 
that  vain  falls  dnring  that  period,  'iho  rains  begin  in  tho 
middle  oi'  Ajn-il,  and  continue,  with  greater  or  less  intervals, 
till  (he  end  of  Angnst.  In  the  northern  ]iiovinces  of  (\)|)ia))o 
and  Coqninibo.  little  vain  falls  ;  but  in  the  ]Liiddle  provinces, 
thi'Ci'.  or  four  days'  rain  ollernates  "with  iii'teen  or  tweuiy  dry 
days  ;  and  in  the  southern  ]ir(jvinees,  tlu;  rain  sometimes  con- 
t'nues  nin(>  or  ten  days  uninterruptedly.  In  Copiapo  and  Co- 
((uimbo,  the  comparativi^  v.-ant  of  rain  is  eom])ensated  by  very 
copious  dews.  The  transitions  from  heat  to  cold,  and  r/Ve 
i'lr.'^ti,  arc  moderate,  and  their  extremes  are  eciually  unknown. 
The  air  is  yo  much  cooled  by  sea-breezes  on  the  one  hand,  and 
by  the  winds  from  the  snowy  Andes  on  the  other,  that  the  ther- 
mometer in  the  shade  sehlom  exceeds  7()'.  In  winter  it  rarely 
sinks  to  the  freezing  point,  but  a  perceptible  cold  is  generall}' 
felt  till  noon.  Snow,  exce]it  on  the  Anders,  is  very  uncommon. 
It  is  entirely  unknown  on  the  coast;  and  though  it  sometimes 
falls  in  the  middle  districts,  it  often  melts  ero  it  reaches  the 
ground,  and  is  seldom  known  to  lit»  above  oiu^  day.  On  tho 
Andes,  however,  from  April  to  November,  which  is  ihc  rainy 
season  on  the  ])kuns,  snow  falls  so  abundantly  as  to  render  tho 
passes  wholly  impracticable  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
Thunder  is  unknown  excejit  amid  tlu;  Andes.  The  winds,  in 
Chili,  are  considered  by  tiie  inhabitants  as  nearly  infallihle 
indications  of  the  weather,  and  serve  as  barometers.  Tho 
south  winds,  coming  directly  from  the  Antarctic  pole,  are  cold, 
and  attended  Avith  fair  weather.  The  north  winds,  on  the  con- 
trary, aro  hot  and  humid,  and,  on  the  cast  of  the  Andes,  are 
more  suilocating  than  the  sirocco.  The  scmth  wind  prevails 
Avhile  tho  sun  is  in  the  soutluu'n  hemisphere.  It  relaxes  about 
noon,  jind  is  then  supplanted  for  two  or  three  hours  by  a  fresh 
]>i'eezo  from  the  sea,  which,  from  its  returning  regularly,  is 
called  the  meridian-breeze,  and  the  clock  of  the  peasants.  In 
the  afternoon  tlie  south  v.ind  returns;  and,  at  midnight,  it  is 
once  more  succeeded  by  the  l)ef ore-mentioned  breeze.  "At 
lir.st,  it  appears  rather  surprising  that  the  trade-wind,  along 
the  northern  parts  of  Chili,  and  on  the  coast  of  IVru,  shoid(l 
blow  in  so  very  southerly  a  direction  as  it  does  ;  but  when  wo 
reflect  that  the  Cordillera,  running  in  a  north  and  S(mth  line, 
iiitercejits,  like  a  great  Avail,  the  (iitirc  depth  of  tho  loAver 
atmospheric  current,  we  can  easily  see  that  the  trade-Avind 
must  be  draAvn  n;>rthAvard,  foUoAviug  the  line  of  mountains, 
toAvard  the  equatorial  regions,  and  thus  lose  part  of  that  east- 
erly movement  Avhich  it  otherAvisc  Avould  have  gained  fnnii  the 
earth's  r(.)tation"  (Darwin).  The  east  Avind  is  seldom  felt  iu 
Chili.     The  meteorological  history  records  only  one  hurricane. 


MOl-N'TAIN  SYSTEM  OF  THE  ANDES. 


310 


raro 


The  fjnloa  of  wind  which  havo  lioeu  at  times  so  dostnictivi^  to 
shi])|)iiif^  on  Uic  coast  of  Chili,  como  from  tlio  northwest,  and 
arc  coiunion  in  winter,  'riic  ni^'hts  are  niniLrniMeent,  from  the 
ck>arn(!ss  of  the  atuiosplieve,  iind  the  livilliancy  of  tlu!  heav- 
enly bodies.  Fierv  meteors  arc  fn^quent,  ]n-ococdinf;  from  tho 
Anch^s  to  t\w  sea.     Tho  rnifma  (I'l.sfniUs  sel(h)m  a|)))ears. 

In  res])C('t  of  produeticnis,  ChiH  a])pears  to  lie  divided  hy 
uatun^  into  threi>  sections.  That  to  the  Jiortli  of  th<^  i»"Jd  ])ar- 
ullel  is  l)arren,  but  aVionndw  in  eoi)])er  and  silver.  The  eentr;'l 
s<x'tion  is  composed  of  rid)  v.alleys,  :ind  corn  is  hovo  raised  in 
al)undanc(^ ;  but  there  is  little  wood.  The  south  poi'tion  i-;  aiso 
fci'tilo,  and  abounds  in  good  tind)er,  some  of  which  attains  a 
largo  si/e.  Thi^  soil  of  Chili,  in  tjie  northern  provinces,  is  sandy 
and  saline;  l)nt  it  improves  us  v.'c  advance  from  the  coast  to 
the  Andes,  and  likewise  as  wc  proceed  south.  Tlu>  valleys  of 
the  Andes  avd  supe-rior,  in  this  respect,  to  the  middle  districts  ; 
and  these  la.tter  excel  tlu-  maritime  tract.  The  soil  of  tlit;  latter 
often  resembles  tho  fat  land  of  Bologna,  Ix'hig  of  a  reddish 
brown,  friable,  mixed  with  a  little  clay  or  marl,  and  sometimes 
pi'esenting  white  or  brown  ]iebbles.  arsenical  and  martial  ]>vrites, 
with  shells,  madrejiores,  and  other  maruie  produt-tions.  That 
of  the  midland  and  Andinc  vadcs  is  of  a  yellowish  bhicl;  color, 
jiorous,  friable,  tlints,  and  decomposed  marine  iiodies.  In 
other  ({uarters  the  soil  is  a  stilt'  clay,  abounding  in  water-worn 
]iebl)l(.'-:.  Agriculture  in  this  happy  climate  reciuires  little 
attention.  Many  of  the  cereals  and  plants  raised  are  the  same 
as  those  of  Euro])e  ;  whil(>  the  herbage,  os])(>cially  in  th(>  •alleys 
of  the  Andes,  is  tall  and  luxuriant,  sustaining  large  num])ers  of 
cattle,  horses,  and  sheep.  In  fruit  trees  Chili  is  greatly  inferior 
to  the  tropical  eountriis  of  Am(uica. 

Mountain  System  of  the  Andes. 

The  Andes  Proper  may  be  subdivided  into  four  sections. 
The  first,  fornjing  the  southern  section  of  the  systcMu,  and 
extending  from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent  to  the 
Mth  .southeru  i)arallel,  may  be  distinguished  as  the  I'atagonian 
Andes,  sometimes  called  Sierra  Nevada  de  los  Aniles,  and  is 
that  porti(m  of  the  system  which  is  least  known  to  geogra[)hei's. 
The  second  section,  extending  fnnn  the  -Wth  to  tlu;  tiOth 
southern  parallel,  is  the  Andes  of  Chili  a.nd  Potosi.  The  third 
section  is  the  Peruvian  Andes,  (extending  fnnn  the  2(Hh  ])arallel 
to  the  plateau  of  .Umaguer,  under  north  hititude  1  oO',  aial 
sometimes  called  the  Koyal  Cordillc  ,  or  Crand  Cordillei'a  of 
Peru.     The  fourth  section  is  the  Cor   jlleras  of  New  Gran::d;i. 

The  wi'stern  of  these  ridgeti  n;ns  pa.i-allel  to  the  shores  of 
tho  Pacific,  and   Is   called  the  Cordillera  of  the  Coast.     The 


I  n 


i    ' 


•w^MiMaai 


320 


INFI^UENCE  OF  CLIMATI':. 


i 


oastorn,  or  that  of  the  interior,  is  ciilled  the  Conlilhn-.a  Ileal. 
The  intcrnuHliato  ])luin  is  the  bahin  of  the  celebrated  Lake 
Titicaca,  tli<>  ])hysical  J'eaturt>s  of  Avhich  are  scarcely  less  extra- 
onliiiary  than  its  history  is  interesting'.  Generally  sjxiakin^f, 
th(^  western  Cordillera  is  *l..i  moat  elcvati-d,  attaining,  iit  many 
points,  an  alisolnte  h«  i^dit  of  from  2'2,<iO0  to  21,000  i'fet ;  Mhiie 
the  eastern  Cordillera,  between  the  latitudes  of  1\)  and  10  10' 
south,  nowlu^re  exceeds  17,000  feet.  In  the  latter  ])arallel, 
however,  the  ^ij^antic  lUimani  s])rings  to  the  height  of  21,200 
feet;  !ind  north  of  it,  several  other  elevated  jioints  even  sur- 
pass the  hei;nht  of  the  western  ridi^e.  The  most  elevated  is 
the  Nevardo  de  Sorata,  in  south  latitude  1(5  TO',  the  heiffht  of 
which  is  25,250  feet.  In  general  shape  and  character  the  two 
also  diti'er.  The  heights  in  the  western  are  chietly  dome  or 
bell  shaped;  those  in  the  eastern  are  jxNiked,  giving  the  range 
generally  a  serrated  form.  The  des(;ent  of  Itoth,  east  and  west, 
is  rapid  ;  but  that  of  the  western  Cordillera,  into  the  basin  of 
Titicaca,  is  less  so  than  that  of  the  eastern.  The  breadth  of 
the  former  is  aboiit  100  miles  ;  that  of  the  latter  it  is  less  easy 
to  determine,  in  ccniseciuence  of  its  throwing  out  manylaft_ai 
chains  on  its  eastern  side,  the  length  of  which  may  be  cousid- 
<n'ed  portions  of  the  breadth  of  the  main  ridge.  Excluding 
these,  however,  this  may  be  estimated  at  from  'do  miles  where 
narrowest  (17  58'  S(nith),  to  abov(!  70  miles  where;  widest 
(1()  50'  south).  The  entii(!  widtli  of  the  two  ridges,  including 
that  also  of  the  basin  of  Titicaca,  varies  from  200  to  300  miles, 
exclusive  of  the  projecting  chains ;  including  them,  it  ap- 
]n'oaclies  500  miles  ;  and  tlu;  k'Ugth  of  this  portiim  of  the 
Andean  chain,  bounded  by  the  11th  and  20tii  southern  par- 
allels, is  nearly  100  miles. 

According  to  Hund)oldt,  all  the  grent  elevations  of  the  New 
World  stand  connected  with  that  prodigious  chain,  which,  fol- 
lowing the  direction  of  the  western  I'oast,  stretches,  under 
diHtu'ent  names,  and  with  cousideral)le  interruptions,  from  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  continent  to  the  southern,  over  a 
space  of  10,000  miles  in  length.  This  mountain  system  vastly 
exceeds  its  only  rival,  the  Himalaya,  in  .'ength,  ar.d  never,  like 
it,  loses  its  mountain  character  in  tlie  wide  level  expanse  of  an 
elevated  plateau,  or  is  interrupted  by  broad  valleys  and  the 
iuters(!ction  of  mighty  streams.  Unlike  its  Asiatic  rival,  more- 
over, it  rises  at  once  from  near  sea-level  on  both  sides  of  the 
range.  It  may  bo  considered  as  formed  of  three  sections  : 
Inrsf,  the  Andes,  properly  so  called,  extendmg  from  Cape  Horn 
to  the  isthmus  of  Panama  ;  second,  the  Central  Anu'rican 
system,  extending  frojn  Panama  to  the  peninsula  of  Tehuan- 
tepec  ;  third,  the  North  American  chain,  extending  from  the 
Mexican  plateau  to  near  I3ehring's  Straits. 


CRUISE  THROUGH  THE  .STR.UTH  OF  SLVGELLAN. 


321 


^"ig, 


Cruiao  through  the  Straits  of  Magellnu. 

EXTRACT  OF  A  LEITEU  FROM   OX  BO.VRD  THE  U.  8.  STEAMER  POWHAT- 
TAN,  GIVING  DESCItllTIONS  OF  THE  HTRAITS  OF  MAGELLAN. 

"  United  States  Fufgate  Powiiattan, 
"  Off  CapeViryia^,  Kiistiru  E'litrnnce  to  Straits  of  .]f(KjrU>ni  (o'J  oO  S.  lit.), 

"FebriKiri/  5,  18G((. 

"Wo  arc  just  ontcrinj:;  tLis   far-fiinicil,  much  abiisod,  aiul 

(IroiuleJ   strait.     The  ^veatllcl•  is   Hue,  Imt  ue,  just   IVom  the 

tropics,  art'  inulHcd  up  in  our  f^rcat  coats  and  furs.     Tlio  next 

two  weeks  will  probably  be  the  most  oveutful,  as  they  must  be 

the  most  interesting  part  of  our  voyage.     The  navigation  of  a 

crooked  and  dangerous  passage,  l)ut   slightly  known,  in   the 

latitudes  of  almost  constant  gales,  is  quite  a  ditl'erent  thing 

from  a  pleasure  trip  across  the  ocean  in  warmer  latitudes.     AVe 

have  daylight  to  cheer  us  fi'om  two  o'clock,  A.  M.,  to  half-past  ten 

at  night;  but  I  dread  the  cold  and  snow  which  we  must  exjicct. 

I  cannot  pretend  to  give  you  the  faintest  idea  of  the  intense 

blackness  and  loneliness  of  this  coast.     A  large  portion  of  the 

banks  of  the  straits  are  perfectly  treeless,  shrubhiss,  and  gi'ass- 

less.     The  sky  is  seldom  cloudless,  the  wind  almost  continually 

blowing  a  gale,  and  the  sea  has  a  cold  leaden  color,  which  adds 

to  the  general  dreariness  of  the  asjicct.     We  have  not  as  yet 

seen  any  traces  of  the  Indians,  either  on  the  Patagouian  or 

Terra  del  Fuegiau  shore,  but  llamas,  gminacos,  ostriches,  and 

other  wild  animals  and  birds,  besides  seals  and  sea  lions,  have 

been  frequently  seen  on  the  shores. 

"Off  Cape  Gregouy  (o:]"  S.  lot),  Fchritary  8. 
"  I  have  just  returned  from  a  run  on  the  shore,  where  wo 
were  lucky  enough  to  fall  in  with  a  band  of  Indians.  They 
are  strange  looking  fellows,  and  always  on  horseback.  They 
are  hugely  built,  perhaps  six  feet  four  or  five  inches  tall,  Avitli 
splendid  chests,  brsi-wny  arms,  but  small,  ill-shaped  lej^s.  I  do 
not  wonder  that  Drake  and  other  early  voyagers  described 
these  natives  as  giants.  We  had  a  large  party,  well  armed, 
and  compelled  them  to  take  us  to  their  village,  much  against 
their  wislies.  I  can  assure  you  the  long  tramp  we  had  was 
amply  repaid  by  the  novelty  of  the  scene  we  l)eheld.  At  first 
the  whole  camp  took  tlight ;  but  on  our  oft'ering  them  some 
copper  coin,  we  soon  established  a  good  feeling.  They  live  in 
the  rudest  kind  of  huts,  made  of  skins,  banked  up  with  earth. 
The  faces  and  bodies  of  the  young  women  and  girls  were  be- 
smeared with  red,  yellow  and  black  nmd,  giving  them  a  most 
grotesque  appearance.  Near  by  their  village  we  saw  ono  of 
their  "  toldos,"  or  tombs,  which  consists  of  a  mound  of  earth, 


I 


322 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


m 


ilankod  on  cither  Bido  by  tlio  cfTigics  of  tlieir  horses,  rudely  cut 
out  of  wood,  and  l)its  oi  skin,  cut  like  pennants,  stuck  on  poles 
over  and  about  the  mound.  While  we  were  at  the  village,  a 
jiarty  of  huuterri  returned,  bringmg  guauaeoes,  foxes,  and 
Hcveral  largo  ostriches. 

"  Entkkino  the  Pacific,  Fehni";'  ':». 
"  Wo  cleared  the  straits  on  the  loth,  and,  after  a  boi8tei'ou.s 
passage  of  three  days,  arrived  at  this  out-of-the-way  refuse. 
Human  eye  never  rested  on  grander  scenery  than  that  by 
which  wo  are  now  siirrounded.  The  mountains  rise  fi'om  the 
water's  edge  to  the  height  of  15,000  feet,  covered  with  eternal 
snow.  Wo  have  three  huge  glaciers  in  sight,  one  of  which  runs 
down  to  the  water,  and  is  two  miles  broad  at  its  base  !  These 
waters  liavo  never  been  surveyed  to  their  Umits,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed they  comnumicato  inland  to  the  Isle  of  Chiloe,  in  Chili. 
Th(jre  are  no  natives  near,  nor  has  the  gulf  been  visited  since 
the  time  of  Fitz  Hoy,  except  by  one  or  two  scale  s." 

The  Straits  of  Magellan,  or  Magalliaens,  forms  a  navigable 
channel  of  about  300  miles  in  length,  and  var^-ing  in  breadth 
from  2  to  40  mOes,  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  ; 
the  most  southern  portion  lying  in  about  54°  south  latitude. 
This  channel  was  discovered  in  1 510  by  Fernando  Magalliaens, 
who  sailed  through  it.  The  Avestern  shore  of  Patagonia  hero 
presents  numerous  sinuosities,  studded  with  islands  of  various 
dimensions,  forming  the  Adelaide,  or  Patagoniau  Archipelago. 
Through  thcs(i  islands  there  is  a  ship  channel  to  the  Gulf  of 
Pencas,  in  47  30'  south  latitude. 

The  Axdcs  of  Pa!(ui<mhi,  extending  in  one  range  from  latitude 
42"^  south,  to  Cajie  Horn,  are  of  comparatively  moderate  eleva- 
tion, varying  from  8,000  feet  downwards.  The  snow  line  de- 
scends here  to  3,000  feet,  and  glaciers  make  their  appearance, 
though  unknown  in  the  rest  of  the  Andes.  Mount  Yanklcs, 
south  latitude  43-30',  elevated  8,000  feet,  is  an  active  volcano  ; 
Mount  Scokes,  south  latitude  50^,  G,400  feet ;  Mount  Darwin, 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  0,800  feet ;  Capo  Horn,  the  southern  ex- 
tremity, 300  feet. 

The  Patagonian  Indians  arc  a  tall,  muscular  race  of  men, 
avei  aging  about  six  feet  in  height,  leading  a  nomadic  life,  and 
subsisting  on  the  produce  of  the  chase  and  fishing.  They  are 
represented  as  a  warlike  people,  and  good  horsemen  ;  but  the 
natives  of  the  moimtain  region,  and  of  the  Fuegian  Archi- 
pelago, are  a  stunted  race,  sunk  in  the  deepest  ignorance  and 
degradation. 


ASCENT  OP  THE  PEAK  OF  ORIZABA. 


323 


Ascent  of  the  Peak  of  Orizaba. 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  impassable  barrier  to  the 
highest  Moinitain  Peaks,  as  well  as  the  impossibility  of  reaching 
the  higher  latitudes  toward  the  Pofcs,  we  add  the  following 
graphic  account  of  a  late  attempt  (January,  18(17)  to  ascend 
the  snowy  peak  of  Orizaba,  according  to  Humboldt  the  high- 
est peak  in  Mexico,  and  the  handsomest  in  the  world.  The 
party  had  resolved  on  treading  where  a  white  man's  foot  never 
ventured  before,  and  anticipated  remaining  upon  the  mountain, 
above  the  clouds,  two  nights  at  least.  The  correspondent  of 
the  New  Orleans  Picai/une  describes  the  incidents  of  the  first 
day's  ascent,  and  continues : 

"At  sunset  WO  reached  the  stone  chapel  and  tower,  13,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  One  after  the  other  our  com- 
pany filed  into  the  gateway  for  the  night.  Of  its  origin  there 
IS  no  history ;  of  its  age,  generations  long  since  dumb  knew 
naught.  The  frost  that  night  was  sliai-p  and  heavy.  Tiie  bare 
hard  enrth  was  white,  and  the  morning  light  revealed  the 
neighboring  stream  iced  over  as  it  slept  almost  on  the  narrow 
level  above  the  abysses.  The  air  drifted  down  from  the  snow 
region,  and  man  and  horse  shivered  in  the  blast.  Thermome- 
ters were  low,  and  so  were  the  spirits  of  the  party.  Com- 
plaints were  many,  and  enthusiasm  had  flagged  alarnlmgly. 
A  vote  then  would  have  disclosed  two-thirds  of  the  party  m 
favor  of  retreating.  From  this  point  there  was  no  horse-path. 
Here  ended  all  signs  of  human  or  animal  travel,  and  upward, 
for  four  or  five  thousand  feet,  in  interminable  laj'ers  of  rock 
and  cinders,  and  above  these,  and  on  the  pyramidal  ridges, 
the  ruined  tower  gleamed  in  the  sun,  until  one's  head  became 
dizzy  at  the  sight  of  close-packed  snow  and  thousands  of  ice- 
pinnacles. 

"  Over  these  we  were  to  clamber  before  reaching  the  sum- 
mit. Some  of  the  party  breathed  heavily  even  at  this  height, 
and  were  averse  to  j^roceeding  fiu-ther.  Horses  were  picketed 
within  the  v>'alled  yard  of  the  niined  chapel;  artists  packed 
their  apparatus,  the  engineers  their  instruments,  and  with  a 
plenteous  supply  of  brandy  in  each  man's  pocket,  the  guides 
were  directed  to  commence  the  ascent.  Then  followed  promis- 
cuously Americans,  Englishmen,  Mexicans,  one  after  the  other, 
singing,  whistlinj^,  jesting  as  we  went,  Not  long  did  these 
noisy  demonstrations  last,  for  the  breath  came  hard,  and  the 
hands  and  feet  and  senses  were  requu-ed  for  the  hazardous 
journey.    As  we  advanced,  new  difSculties  arose  ;  ledges  were 


a: 


324 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


precipitous  and  barely  passable  ;  rocks  of  round  sandstone 
came  roUinj^  and  slidinfi;  dowuAvard  by  us  ;  drifts  of  snow  from 
the  topmost  ridges  glided  swiftly  from  their  places  as  the  sun 
rose  in  the  heavens ;  and  huge  flat  ice-blocks  at  times  came 
whii'ling  by  us  like  cannon  balls. 

"  AVheu  on  a  rise  of  14,000  feet  the  party  separated,  some 
taking  the  high  snow  ridges,  others  the  gorges  or  gulleys. 
There  is  a  mean  difference  in  height  between  the  two,  often 
800  feet.  The  gulleys  run  up  to  the  summit,  with  occasional 
breaks,  parallel  with  the  ridges  ;  and  the  surface  is  composed 
of  debris — a  collection  of  centuries — a  spongy,  black  earth, 
through  which  we  sank  to  the  knees,  and  where  no  snow  or  ice 
lay,  biit  through  which,  at  noon-day,  ran  the  drippings  that 
trickled  from  the  high  snow  cliffs.  The  leajiing  fountains, 
winding  througli  the  gorges,  increased  as  they  descended,  and 
uniting,  sometimes,  below,  swept  in  a  thundering  torrent  down 
the  mountain  side.  These  streams  had  worn  beds  a  hundred 
feet  deeper  yet  than  the  general  level  of  the  gulleys.  The 
formation  of  rocks  and  earth  differed  in  no  wise  from  that  fur- 
ther down.  Here  and  there  lay  huge  pUes  of  gray  limestone 
and  sandstone,  aivl  specks  of  quartz,  promiscuously  intermin- 
gled, angled,  some  f  at  and  edged,  others  with  regular  layers  of 
lime  and  sandstone.  Bents,  fearfully  deep,  in  the  mountain 
side,  disclosed  curiously  disposed  strata  of  the  upper  and  lower 
and  intermediate  sections  of  geologic  formation.  Great,  gap- 
ing mouths  in  the  rocky  sides  send  out  sulphuric  fumes  ;  and 
in  one  mammoth  opening  lay  heaps  of  sulphur,  and,  further 
back,  pillars  of  purplish  stone  (the  result  of  dri2)pings),  thirty 
feet  high.  There  are  no  evidences  of  recent  eruption  (perhaps 
none  for  two  hundred  years),  but  the  fact  that  the  summit  is 
bare  and  black,  and  that  occasional  whirls  of  smoke  are  emiHed 
from  the  crater,  indicates  the  smouldering  condition  only  of  the 
volcano  at  present. 

"  The  ascent  was  continued  in  an  almost  direct  line  toward 
the  top.  Up  to  within  two  thousand  feet  of  the  suuuuit  level, 
the  whole  company  were  in  motion,  but  scattered  at  great  dis- 
tances fi'om  each  other,  soiuo  almost  out  of  sight  on  the  conical 
cliffs,  some  toiling  abreast  up  the  dark  gulleys.  At  this  time 
some  began  to  fail  and  fall  by  the  way,  blood  begnn  to  pass 
from  the  nose  ami  ears,  and  faces  were  swollen  so  that  old 
friends  knew  each  other  only  by  the  dress.  A  few  contimied 
the  journey  a  thousand  feet  higher,  lay  dovNOi,  slept  on  the  snow 
or  black  dust,  gasped  for  breath,  and  awoke.  Some  dro})ped 
every  few  minutes  (it  was  impossible  to  keep  awake  all  the 
time),  l)ut  started  up  again  as  soon,  catching  the  breath. 

•*  The  smi  was  by  this  time  in  mid-heaven,  and  beat  do^ii 


ASCENT  OF  THE  TEAK  OF  ORIZABA. 


325 


fiercely,  blinding  ns,  and  starting  a  thousand  little  rills  from 
the  exposed  lodges,  that  seemed,  in  tlie  sunbeams,  silver  veins, 
as  they  slid  down  noiselessly  from  the  tall  iee-pihars,  and  ran 
along  the  rocky  sides,  clear  as  crystal,  till  they  Avent  foamuig 
and  kuipiug  into  the  surging  stream  below.  No  sign  of  tree, 
or  slunib,  or  grass  blade,  or  liardy  flower — all  silence,  and 
snow,  and  black  desolation  ;  rifted  rocks,  weird,  unseemly  piles 
of  fi'ozen  earth  and  ice,  upward ;  mist  and  cloud  Ix^low  ;  the 
sun  and  sky,  deep  blue,  overhead ;  beneath,  the  cloud-iield  and 
the  abyss.  Snow  banks  would  start  off  thoiuselves  from  their 
places,  and,  Avith  a  sharp,  cutting  sound,  drop  into  the  al)yss, 
and  be  seen  no  more.  Shafts  of  ice  thirty  feet  long,  loosened 
by  the  falling  boulders  and  snow  slides,  slipped  from  their 
moorings,  fell  upon  the  sandstone  cliff  below,  ground  into  frag- 
ments, and,  bounding  onward  between  sun  and  cloud,  sparlded 
like  diamonds  as  they  fell.  The  winds  were  shaip  and.  cold, 
but  not  high.  Sometimes,  in  the  deep  hollow,  it  struck  the 
sharp  crag,  and  shrieked  Hke  the  night  tempest  on  a  rocky  reef. 
Once,  and  once  only,  it  chopped  round,  and  swept  the  mass  of 
cloud  away  eastward,  and  then  distant  landmarks,  and  cities, 
and  plains,  were  visible.  Popocatapetl  and  all  the  Mexican 
volcanoes  w^ere  distinguishable,  and,  with  a  good  telescope,  we 
looked  out,  over  the  Chiquite  Mountains,  into  the  placid  waters 
of  the  Gulf.  In  a  few  minutes  the  wind  shifted,  and  cloud  and 
mist  trooped  back  again,  and  hung  with  a  sort  of  affectionate 
embrace  around  the  mountain  top  and  sides. 

"  Sound  at  this  height  was  very  distinct,  although  it  ap- 
peared distant  when  actually  near.  Amid  the  silence  that 
reigned,  the  sna]>ping  ice  shafts,  and  snow  slides,  and  falling 
rocks,  and  even  the  little  waterfalls,  fell  painfully  upon  the  ear. 
The  crashing  noises  one  experiences  in  caverns  when  a  stone 
strikes  the  floor,  or  a  rill  plays  upon  the  rock,  resemble  very 
nearly  the  sensation ;  and  when  a  boulder  broke  upon  the 
lower  ledge,  the  sound  quivered  with  a  vibratory  motion  for  a 
long  time  before  it  died  away.  The  sense  of  isolation  is  acute, 
existence  is  a  dream,  the  senses  half  benumbed,  memory  in  a 
mist,  and  thought  lost  in  a  maze  of  uncertainty.  Were  it  not, 
indeed,  for  the  contimious  struggle  to  retain  vitality,  the  sensa- 
tion of  losing  breath,  and  the  constant  loss  of  blood,  one  migat 
easily  be  induced  to  dream  on  in  a  seeming  sleep  on  a  sunny 
snow  ledge  or  cinder  gorge. 

"  Wo  were  now  nearly  10,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Dis- 
tinctly, as  if  at  our  elbow%  the  sound  of  the  guide's  feet  striking 
the  solid  drift,  1,000  feet  away,  fell  u])on  the  ear.  Evidently 
the  Indian  pilots,  who  did  not  eount  upon  our  advaDcing  so  far, 
became  alarmed,  and  indicated  a  wish  to  return. 


P' 


\m 


S2Q 


INFLUENCE  OF  CLIMATE. 


MMi 


"  Two-tliirds  of  our  party  were  out  of  sight,  down  the  slope. 
Three  alone,  beside  the  affrighted  guides,  held  their  Avay. 
Blood  oozed  fi'om  cars  and  nostrils  and  mouth,  and  veins  stood 
out  on  the  forehead  like  gi'eat  black  lines.  Our  footing  became 
more  and  more  imcertain,  the  ascent  more  abrupt,  the  stones 
constantly  turning  and  cnimbhng  away,  and,  betimes,  huge 
masses  of  earth  and  boulders  and  scoria,  loosened  by  the  melt- 
ing snow,  came  thundering  and  hissing  from  above,  fairly  flying 
past  our  heads  on  to  the  next  projecting  ledge ;  and  great  snow 
drifts,  broken  and  cnimbled  by  the  colliding  rocks,  avalanchcd 
down  upon  our  heads  a  perfect  storm  of  snow,  and  icicles,  and 
black  earth,  and  lava  dust.  One  of  the  guides,  smitten  by  a 
passing  drift,  rolled,  half  dead,  three  hundred  feet  down  the 
slope,  and  was  buried  for  awhile  in  the  debris  of  snow  and 
earth. 

"  The  mmiature  cascades  disappeared.  Even  the  driiipings 
disappeared  from  the  rocks ;  for  wo  had  passed  the  line  of 
thaw.  Snow  was  beaten  down  hard  and  compact,  and  glis- 
tened like  ice  as  the  sun  fell  upon  it.  But  an  abundance  of 
loose  rocks  lay  on  the  surface,  poised  for  motion  at  the  slight- 
est touch.  The  guide  started  more  than  one  as  he  picked  his 
way  some  distance  in  front.  Wo  heard  by  the  footfalls  that 
the  courageous  S.  was  pushing  on.  Ho  was  within  500  Jhf  of 
the  ioj),  turning  into  a  shallow  guUey  to  avoid  the  falliug 
boulders,  when  a  sliding,  tumbling  noise  was  heard,  then  a 
heavy  dull  click,  then  a  fall,  .and  in  a  moment  a  hea\-y  boulder 
came  whizzing  l)y  on  its  downward  course.  Some  one  called 
out,  '  S.  has  fallen !'  The  rock  struck  him  on  the  shoulder, 
breaking  it,  and  hurled  him  a  hundred  feet  down  the  steep 
gulley.  The  guide  reached  him  soon  after,  and  we  bore  him 
slowly  down  the  steep  slope,  abandoning,  for  the  time,  our 
enterprise. 

"  Arrived  at  the  tower,  the  mountain  streams,  swollen  by  the 
melting  snow,  went  foaming  and  roaring  down  their  rocky  beds. 
Our  horses  were  picketed  as  we  left  them  in  the  morning.  We 
passed  another  night  within  the  roofless  chapel,  and  with  all 
the  quaint  stories  and  goV)lin  fables  associated  with  it,  slept 
soundly  till  '  rosy  thigers'  of  morn  streaked  the  eastern  sky  ; 
and  down  again,  with  our  wounded  comrade,  into  the  soft  warm 
winds  and  pine  groves,  wo  picked  our  way  ;  and  yet  further  ou, 
to  the  balmier  air  of  the  lowlands,  Avhere  cool  streams  from  the 
hills  and  peaks  dancetl  merrily  through  maguey  fields,  and  in 
the  orange  shade,  through  broad  pampas,  to  the  Rio  Bianco, 
where  reigns  perpetual  spring  or  summer." 


ANTAECTIC  OCEAN  AKD  CONTDsT:NT. 


327 


ig 


The  Antarctic  Ocean  and  Continent. 

The  expanse  of  water  surrountliug  tlie  South  or  xVntarctic 
Pole,  called  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  may  be  strictly  regarded  as 
extending  from  the  Polo  to  the  Antarctic  Circle,  or  GG^3U'  south 
latitude.  This  portion  of  the  globe's  surface  has  been  hitherto 
very  imperfectly  explored,  and  is  even  less  familiar  to  naviga- 
tors tiiau  corresponding  latitudes  in  the  opposite  polar  region, 
wivhin  the  Arctic  Circle,  which  has  been  partially  described  in 
the  beginning  of  this  work.  The  Antartic  Continent  and  adja- 
cent islands,  discovered  and  explored  by  English,  Fi'ench,  and 
American  navigators,  is  ascertained,  however,  to  be  much  less 
habitable  than  the  Arctic  regions  of  North  America,  since  it  is 
limited  in  extent,  and  the  vast  space  within  the  Antarctic 
Circle  is  mostly  occupied  either  with  sea  or  ice,  in  latitudes  cor- 
responding to  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere  far  within  the 
limits  of  umn's  occupation,  "^liile  the  absolute  limits  of  veg- 
etable life  have  not  yet  been  attained  in  the  fiigid  regions  of 
the  north,  uot  the  mmutest  trace  of  a  moss  or  an  alga)  was 
discovered  in  the  vast  Antarctic  Continent,  traced  by  Sir  James 
Eoss  ;  nor  is  it  possible  that  any  tribes  of  the  human  famil}-  can 
exist  in  these  high  southern  latitudes ;  but  the  animal  kingdom 
has  numerous  representatives.  The  penguin  and  the  blue 
petrel  are  ever^-v^-here  to  be  seen,  and  the  hump-backed  and 
finned  backed  whale  abound ;  also,  the  sea-elephant,  and  dif- 
ferent species  of  seals,  which  yield  a  valuable  article  of  fur. 
The  furthest  j^oint  in  these  southern  latitudes  hitherto  attained 
(^78°10'^  was  rnnciiod  bv  Capt.  Jamcs  lloss,  in  18-12.     He  savs  : 

"  Still  steering  to  the  southward,  along  the  coast,  a  mountain, 
of  12,'iOO  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  was  seen  emitting  fiame 
and  smoke  in  splendid  profusion.  This  magnificent  volcano 
received  the  name  of  Momtf  L'f(t)us\  It  is  in  south  latitude 
77^^32',  and  east  longitude  1G7^.  An  extinct  crater  to  the  east- 
ward, of  a  somewhat  less  elevation,  was  called  Mount  T>  rror. 
In  other  parts  of  the  coast  are  lofty  mountain  ])eaks  of  from 
9,0t)0  to  12,000  feet  m  height,  perfectly  covered  with  eternal 
snow.  The  glaciers  that  descended  from  near  the  mountain 
summits  projected  many  miles  into  the  ocean,  and  ju'csented  a 
perpendicular  face  of  lofty  cHfl's." 

The  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  under  the  command 
of  Lieut.  Charles  Wilkes,  in  Ib-lO-'-ll,  penetrated  to  67"^  S., 


328 


INFLXTENCE  OF  CLIJLVTE. 


159°  E.  (maguctic  polo  90^  S.,  140^  E.)  The  Antarctic  Conti- 
nent was  reached  January  1(5,  1840,  tlio  middle  of  the  summer 
in  tills  hcniisphoro  ;  temperature  of  air  IJ2 ',  and  water  iil'^ 
Fahr.  Island,  berg,  and  tield  ice  surroitnded  the  land.  Only 
about  1,900  miles  of  the  coast  of  this  inhospitable  region  has 
been  explored  by  the  different  navigators. 

Thus  is  exhibited  the  wonderful  lohenouiena  of  nature  as  you 
approach  either  of  the  poles  of  our  globe — the  Arctic  or  the 
Antarctic,  So  in  regard  to  every  parallel  of  latitude  that  is 
passed  in  succession,  although  less  marked,  in  going  through 
the  frigid,  cold,  temperate,  sub-tropical,  and  tropical  zones, 
until  you  reach  the  Equator,  as  well  as  on  ascending  to  higher 
altitudes,  the  Animal  and  Vegetable  Kingdom  are  found  to 
change  ;  so  much  so  as  to  place  an  eternal  barrier  between  the 
two  extremes — one  abounding  in  animated  life,  and  the  other 
in  the  solitude  of  the  desert. 

The  Temperate  find  Sub-tropical  Zones,  which  lie  about  equi- 
distant from  the  poles  and  the  equator,  are  the  only  highly 
favored  portions  of  the  Earth's  surface,  as  are  abundantly 
proved  by  the  facts  exhibited  in  this  compOation.  An  eminent 
"vsTiter  remarks,  when  sj'jeaking  of  the  different  races  of  men, 
as  influencad  by  climate  :  "  History  bears  out  this  theory  when 
it  sums  up  what  the  nations  of  the  extreme  north  and  south 
have  done  for  civilization.  Were  they  stricken  from  the  earth, 
it  would  feel  it  no  more  than  the  steamship  does  the  Avavo 
which  sends  a  shower  of  spray  over  its  bows,  without  checldng 
the  revolution  of  the  wheels." 

In  conclusion,  it  may  bo  said  that  one-third  of  the  earth's 
surface  is  given  up  to  hrd,  too  intense  and  enervating  for  the  ad- 
vance of  the  human  species,  while  rank  vegetation  and  animals 
of  an  inferior  order  abound.  About  one-third  is  also  given  up 
to  coU,  too  intense  for  advancement,  man  being  compelled  to 
toil  inccssantl}'  in  order  to  gain  food  and  clothing  sufticient  to 
sustain  life.  It  is  only  within  the  remaining  third  of  the 
earth's  surface,  or  the  Temperate  Climates,  ranging  from  40^  to 
70^  mean  annual  temperature,  where  the  seasons  are  about 
equally  divitled,  averaging  three  months  for  Sjiring,  Summer, 
Autumn,  and  Wintex',  that  the  human  race  really  thrives,  and 
advances  in  moral  and  hitellectual  culture,  and  where  science 
and  the  arts  are  encouraged. 


INDEX. 


Adirondack  Mountiiiiis,  27,  29. 

Agassiz'a  Lctture  en  the  Amazon  River, 
Climate,  itc,  21»4. 

Airrifulture,  Ailnptation  of  riimato,  to,  19-1. 

At,'ric'ultiire  ill  JJrazil,  2'Jl,  Rm"). 

Airrifiilture  in  California,  219. 

Agriculture  in  ( Central  Ameriea,  249. 

Agriculture  in  Cuba,  2")9. 

Agriculture  in  Eastern  States,  121. 

Agriculture  in  Lake  Suiierior  Keirion,  99. 

Agriculture  in  Middle  States,  121. 

Agriculture  in  Northern  States,  121. 

Agriculture  in  Simtliern  States,  122. 

Agriculture  in  "Western  States,  123. 

Agricultural  Products  of  Canada,  Si,  1S4. 

Agricultural  Products  of  Central  Amer- 
ica, 2-48. 

Agricultural  Products  of  Cuba,  259,  262. 

Agricultural  Products  of  Mexico,  241. 

Agricultural  Products  of  United  States, 
121,  124. 

Air  and  the  Ocean,  Temperature  of,  .39,  2.j2. 

Alabama,  Airricultural  Products  of,  122, 

Alabanui,  Climate  of,  210. 

Albany,  New  York,  Temperature  of,  180, 

Aleutian,  or  Fdx  Islands,  42. 

Aliaska,  or  Alashka,  41. 

Alle^lianies,  or  Apiialachian  Chain,  193. 

Alleghany  Mountains,  2'!,  29. 

Altitude, 'Alleghany  range,  196. 

Altitude  auii  Temperature,  66,  90,  323. 

Altitude  of  Mountain  Pcakti,  23,  29,  196. 

Altitude  of  the  Andes,  310,  319,  322. 

Amazon  open  to  Navigation,  295. 

Amazon  Kiver,  Climate,  &c.,  294. 

America,  liritish,  28,  43. 

America,  Central,  239. 

.Vmerica,  North,  19,  101. 

America,  Russian,  28,  41. 

America,  South,  24,  277,  31,'. 

America,  Vetrctable  Kingdom  of,  105. 

America,  Cold  Zone  of,  40. 

Ameriea,  Temperate  Zone  of,  15. 

America,  Torrid  Zone  of,  15. 

America,  \'egetalile  Kingdom  of,  105. 

America,  Pacilic  States,  222. 

Andes  ot'  South  America,  310. 

Andes,  Mountain  System  of,  319. 

Animals  of  South  America,  313, 


Annual  Mean  Temiiornturo,  18,  90,  280. 
Animals  of  tlie  Polar  Reu'ion,  322. 
Annual  Measurement  of  Rain,  168. 
Animal  Rise  and  Fall  of  Lake  Superior,  98. 
Antilles,  or  West  India  Islands,  254. 
Antarctic  Drift,  or  Ilumlioldt  Current,  277. 
Antarctic  Ocean  and  Continent,  3';7. 
Apj)earauce  of  tlie   Sun  from  th)   North 

Pole,  34. 
Arctic  Circle,  30,  37. 
Arctic  Lands  and  Ocean,  30. 
Arctic  Regions,  32. 
Arctic  Sea,  Temperature  of,  39. 
Area  of  the  Great  I^akes,  95. 
Area,   TemiK-rature,   &c.,   of  the   United 

States,  118,  121. 
Argentine  Republic,  Climate  of,  314. 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  214. 
Arkansas,  Airricultural  Products  of,  122. 
Arkansas,  Climate  of,  21o. 
Army  Meteorological  Register,  10. 
Ascent  of  Mount  Hood,  Oreixon,  149. 
Ascent  of  the  Peak  of  Urizalia,  323. 
.\spinwall.  Fall  of  Rain  at,  251. 
Astoria,  Oregon,  147. 
Asuncion,  Paraguay,  313. 
Atmosphere,  Measure  and  Weiglit,  14. 
Aurora  Borealis,  36. 
Auroras  on  Lake  Superior,  98. 

B 

Baiiin's  Bay,  3S. 

Baiiamas,  Cliiniitc  of,  272. 

Bahia,  Tempcr.atnro  of,  287. 

Banana,  ('ulture  of,  262. 

Bav  of  .Slercv,  38. 

Belize,  British  Honduras,  248. 

Belle-Isle,  Straits  of,  63. 

Benecia,  California,  154. 

Bermuda,  Climate  of,  273,  275. 

Bermuda  Grass,  202. 

Border  States,  Agricultural  Products,  121, 

Border  States,  Climate  of,  195. 

Bolivia,  Climate,  itc,  310. 

Bolivia,  Mountain  Ranges,  310. 

]5otanv,  23,  105. 

Botany  of  Brazil,  288. 

Brazil,  Asrassiz's  Lecture  on,  294. 

Brazil,  AL'ricultural  Products  of,  291. 

Brazil,  Climate,  &c.,  285,  287,  294. 


330 


INDEX. 


Brazil,  Rivera  ot',  2S(),  804. 

Brazil,  \'alleya  of,  285,  SOI. 

British  Amerioa,  ii'^,  43. 

V»riti.-li  Aiiioricii,  Ciiinafc  of,  50.  52. 

Bui'iina   Avres,   t'liiimto  uud  Agricultural 

I'roducta  of,  314. 
Buenos  Ayres,  Tciniieraturc  of,  315. 


Butt'alo,  Kew 


Voric, 


Clitnatc  of,  17'.'. 


Burliugton,  Veriuout,  Climate  of,  173. 

C 

Califirnia,  Agricultural  Products  of,  121, 

211). 
California,  its  Climate,  &e.,  215. 
Canada.  y\t,'ricultural  I'mducts  of,  84. 
Canada,  Climate  of,  70,  70,  7S. 
Canaila,  Climatic  Division  of,  67. 
Canada,  Compared  with  Ohio,  184. 
Canada,  Karly  (Observations  in,  70. 
Canada,  Health  Statistics,  82. 
Canada,  Lower,  or  Eastern,  07. 
Canada,  Uiiper,  or  AVestcrn,  O'J. 
Caracas,  Climate  of,  253. 
Central  America,  Cliiuato  mid  Topogrnpty 

of,  239,  245. 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  100,  1G2,  204. 
Charlottctown,   I'rineo    Edward'.-j    Island, 

Teiniieraturo  of,  S3. 
Chicago,  Illinois,  183. 
Chili,  South  America,  Climate  &o.,  317. 
Cities  and  Military  Posts,  CO,  132,  141,  150, 

151»,  ItiS. 
Climate  of  th.o  Bahamas,  272. 
Clinuito  of  Bermuda,  273. 
Climate  of  British  America,  44. 
Climatrt  of  Bolivia,  310. 
Climate  of  Brazil,  285,  294. 
Climate  of  Buenos  Ayres,  313. 
Climate  of  California,  231. 
Climate  of  Canada,  9,  7o.  70. 
Climate  of  Central  America,  239,  245. 
Climate  of  Chili,  317. 
Climate  of  Cuba,  258,  205. 
Climate  of  Florida,  2o5. 
Climate  of  Ecuador,  3o7. 
Climate  of  (Jrecnlaud,  35. 
Climate  of  (luiana,  284. 
Clinuitc  of  Ilaytl,  '.i70. 
Climate  of  Jamaica,  270. 
Climate  of  Eahrndor,  00. 
Climate  of  Mexico,  243. 
CUmate  of  Minnesota,  ISO. 
Climate,  Monthly  Becords  of.  9,  208. 
Climate  of  the  New  England  States,  172. 
Climate  of  Newfoundland,  04. 
Climate  of  New  Granada,  282. 
Climate  of  North  America,  19. 
Climate  of  I'acilic  States,  155,  215. 
Clinuito  and  Productions  of  Paraguay,  312. 
Climate  and  Natives  of  Patagonia,  321. 
Climate  of  I'cru,  311. 
Climate  of  Kcd  liiver  of  the  North,  50. 
Climate  of  Russian  America,  284. 
Climate  of  Soutii  America,  24,  277,  310. 
Clinuito  of  Southern  States,  195, 
Climate  of  South-western  States,  210. 
Climate  of  State  of  New  York,  177. 


Climate  of  United  St.itcs,  12,  175,  222. 
Climate  of  Vancouver's  Island,  88. 
Climate  of 'V'enzuela,  283. 
Clinuite  of  West  Indies,  255. 
Climate  of  "Western  States,  182. 
Clinuitic  Boundary  <if  the  United  States,  115. 
Climatic  Boundary  of  South  America,  279. 
Climatic  Divisicjus,  Ac,  122. 
Climatic  Division  of  Canada,  07. 
t'litnatic  Division  of  North  America,  15. 
Cliniatic  Features  of  the  United  States,  133, 

142,  151,  lOO. 
Climatic  Zones,  10. 
Coilee  (Culture,  201,  805. 
Coffee  in  Brazil,  1)05. 
Cold  and  Hot  Climates,  328. 
Cold,  or  Frigid  Zones,  15,  20. 
(N)ld  Zone  of  America,  40. 
C(i!oradi>,  Climate,  itc,  of,  187. 
Colorado  Desert,  217. 
Colomliia,  or  New  Uranada,  282. 
Columbus,  Ohio,  Meieorologicnl  Okserva- 

tions,  1S5. 
Connecticut,  Agricultural  Products  of,  121. 
Consumption,  Geography  of,  112. 
Consumption  and  Fevurs,  120. 
Costa  Rica,  Climate  of,  240,  231. 
Cotton  Culture,  201. 
Cotton-growing  States,  200. 
Cotton,  Nortlu'rn  Limits  of,  199. 
Crossing  the  Plains,  187. 
<,'uba.  Its  Climate,  iVrc,  258,  2G5. 
<'uba.  Diseases  in,  203. 
Cuba,  As^ricultural  Products  of,  259. 
Cultivation  of  Tobacco,  199,  200. 
Cumaua,  Temperature  of,  270. 
Cumberland  House,  Temperature  of,  56. 

D 

Dalles  of  the  Columhia,  147. 

Dakota,  Territorv  of,  139. 

Dakota,  Climate  "of,  114. 

Deaths  in  Canada,  83. 

Deaths  in  the  I'nited  States,  126. 

Deaths  in  the  United  States  Army,  171. 

Delaware,  Agricultural  Products'of,  121. 


Delta  of  the  Missis; 


210. 


sippi, 

Detroit  Barracks,  130. 
]>ev,'  Poijit,  Mean  of  th.o   101. 
Diamond  and  Gold  Mines  of  Brazil,  304. 
Diseases  and  Deaths,  140. 
Diseases  in  Cuba,  203. 
Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System,  112. 

E 
Early  French  Authors  on  Climate,  7i). 
Eastern  States,  Agricultural  Products,  121. 
1'1'uador,  Clhuafe  of,  8o7. 
Ivpiutor,  Clinuite  of,  287,  297. 
Eipiatorial  Current,  17,  279. 
Ks([uimalt,  Vancouver's  Island,  238. 
Esipiiuiuux,  31,  281. 
European  Climates,  22. 
Exploring  Expeditioub,  30. 

F 
Fevers  and  Heavy  Ruius,  162. 


-^.*i-,.iTi<-"°^--;*ir': 


INDEX. 


331 


75,  222. 

,  b8. 


(I  States,  115. 
iiiL'rica,  li79. 

7. 

lerica,  15. 
1  States,  133, 


!-2. 

cftl  Observa- 

lucts  of,  121. 
12. 


»9. 


f,  259. 
ure  of,  56. 


2G. 

riny,  171. 
cts'of,  121. 


Brazil,  304. 
•stem,  112. 


lato,  Ti). 
roducts,  121. 


1,  238. 


Fever,  Yellow,  1G5,  204. 

riorida,  AL'rieiiltunil  TroJucts  of,  122. 

Florida,  Cliiiiate  of,  205. 

Florida,  Productions,  iSrc.,  205. 

Fluctuations  on  Lake  Superior,  98. 

Forest  an<l  I'rairies  of  Korlh  America,  101. 

Forests  of  Urazil,  3o3. 

Forry  on  Climate-.  11. 

Fort 'Alexander,  liritish  America,  49. 

Furt  lielknni.,  Texas,  212, 

Fort  Benton,  Montana,  114,  230. 

Fort  Brady,  Mieliif^an,  137. 

Fort  ]!ridK:er,  Utah,  1-14. 

Fort  Jirown,  Texas,  105. 

Fort  Cascades,  Washington  Territory,  148. 

Fort  Clnircliiil,  British  America,  40. 

Fort  Dalles,  Oregon,  147. 

Fort  Franklin,  Britisli  America,  52. 

Fort  Garry,  British  America,  53 

Fort  Jliipc,  I'lritish  America,  40. 

Fort  .foiies,  California,  155. 

Fort  Kent,  Maine,  134. 

Fort  Laramie,  Dakota,  114,  14-t. 

Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  153. 

Fort  Mackinac,  Michigan,  130. 

Fort  Monroe,  \  irtrinia.  151. 

Fort  Moultrie,  South  Carolina,  100. 

Fort  Niairara,  New  York,  130. 

Fort  Randall,  Dakota,  139. 

Fort  lieadinfr.  CaUfornia,  157. 

Fort  Kiplcy,  Minnesota,  13S. 

Fort  Scott.  Kansas,  154. 

Fort  SneilinfT,  Minnesota,  137. 

Fort  Steilaeoom,  Washingtou  Ter.,  140. 

Fort  Sullivan,  Maine,  135. 

Fort  Yuma,  California,  105,  217. 

Fruit  Culture  in  California,  2iiO. 

Fruits  of  Brazil,  305. 

G 

Gaspe,  District  of,  OS. 

Geoirraphy  of  Consuuii>tion,  114. 

Geori;ia,  Agricultural  Troducts  of,  122. 

Georgia,  Climate  of,  200. 

Glaciers  on  tlie  Coast  of  Greenland,  31. 

Glaciers  of  I'atagonia,  3_'2. 

Grape  Culture  in  California,  220. 

Great  Basin  of  Lake  AVinnipeg,  51. 

Great  Lakes,  or  Inland  Seas,  yO,  91. 

Great  Lakes.  Extent  of,  94. 

Green  Bay,  >Jo,  02. 

Greenland,  Climate  of,  35. 

Greenland,  East  Coast  of,  37. 

Greenland,  Temperature  of,  8?. 

Green  Mountains  of  Vermont,  29,  173. 

Guatemala,  Meteorological  Observations  in, 

240. 
Guateiruila,  Topoirrapliy,  &c.,  250. 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  213. 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  03. 
Gulf  Stream,  ;i73. 
Guiana,  Its  Climate  and  Surface,  2S4. 

II 

Habits  and  Character,  as  Influenced   by 

Ciinuite,  119. 
Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  Temperature  of,  82. 


Hnrrisburg,  Teun.,  Temperature  of,  1S2. 

Havana,  Temperature  ot,  205,  270. 

Hayti.  Climate  of,  276. 

Healthy  Locality  for  Females,  15G. 

Healthy  Kcgions,  35. 

Healthy  and  Fruitful  Regions,  109. 

Health  Statistics  of  Canada,  b2. 

Health  Statistics  of  the  United  States,  126. 

Highest  Mean  Temperature,  277. 

Honduras,  Central  America,  240. 

Hudson  Hay,  British  America,  45. 

Hudson  Bay,  Climate  of,  ;jo. 

Hudson  River,  (Jpening  of,  179. 

Humboldt  Current,  277. 

Humholut  on  the  Climate  of  Cuba,  265. 

Hurricanes,  255,  31S. 

I 

Icebergs,  02. 

Llalio  Territorj',  232. 

Illinois,  AL'rie\dtural  Products  of,  121. 

India-rubber  of  Soutli  America,  3i.»0. 

Inhabitants  of  Mexico,  Climatic  Inlluonce, 
239. 

Inhabitants  of  the  United  States  as  Influ- 
enced by  Climate,  119. 

Indian  Corn  rrcdnct,  lli5,  201. 

Indian  Summer  in  Canada,  80. 

Indiana,  ALrricultural  Products  of,  121. 

Inliuence  that  Produces  Rain,  17. 

Iowa,  Agricultural  Products  of,  121. 

Irrigation,  214. 

Is'aud  of  licrmuda.  Climate  of,  273. 

Island  of  Cuba,  Climate  of,  258,  205. 

Island  of  Jamaica,  Climate  of,  'J70. 

Island  of  Orleans,  Canada,  74. 

Island  of  Porto  Rico,  204. 

Isthmus  of  Panama,  251,  2S1. 

Isothermal  Lines,  10.    (.b«c  Map.) 

.T 

Jamaica,  Climate  of,  270. 
Jetl'ersou  Barracks,  Missouri,  152. 

K 

Kansas.  Agricultural  Products  of,  121. 
Kentueky,'Agricultural  Products,  121, 108. 
Key  AVest,  Temperature  of,  205. 


Labrador,  Chmato  or,  GO. , 

Lake  Champlain,  173. 

Lake  Erie,  9U,  92. 

Lake  Huron,  90,  92. 

Lake  Michigan,  90,  92. 

Lake  of  th.e  Woods,  53. 

Lake  Ontario,  92. 

Lake  Region  of  North  America,  93. 

Lake  Superior,  90,  95,  93,  110. 

Lake  Wnniipeg,  51,  52. 

Limit  of  iiie  Woods,  101. 

Llanos  of  South  America,  314. 

Los  Angelos,  California,  218. 

Louisiana,  Agricultural  Products  of,  122. 

Louisiana,  Climate  of,  104,  210. 

Lower  Canada,  07. 

Low  Water  iu  the  L.ake3,  93. 


332 


INDEX. 


M 


Macki'iiziu  iiivcr,  40,  lol. 

Miuli-ioii  l'>Mrriicks,  New  York,  136. 

iMiiiriictii'  I'ule,  3U. 

Maluriii,  11. 

Man,  Where  Found,  22. 

Mniue,  A<_'riciiltural  Proclucta  of,  121. 

Maine,  Climate  of.  i;i4,  172. 

Marvluivil,  As;rieiilturnl  I'roilucts  of,  131. 

Massaelmsett!<,  ALTriciihiiral  I'roiliiet.s,  121. 

Mean  Temperutures,  CtJ,  'M,  132,  141,  150, 

l.'i'.t. 
Mean  Temiieraturc  in  CiUifornia,  224. 
Moan  TeniiKTature  in  Culja,  27o. 
Medical   Statistics,  10,   112,  12<j,  134,  143, 

151,100,  171. 
Melville  Island,  Temperatnro  of,  38. 
^Meteoroloixieal  Abstract,  38. 
Meteoroloixieal  Observations,  10   139,  17<>. 
Mcteorolosjienl  Observations  at  Havana,  270. 
Mcteorolojrical  Phenomena,  32, 
^(eteoroloi;ical  I'esults  at  Milwaukee,  188. 
Meteorol(if,'ieal  Kesiilts  at  Toronto,  8'). 
JIeteoroloi;ieal  Table,  C.G,  132,  141,  ir.0, 159. 
Jlexieo,  Climate  and  Topography,  239,  243. 
Mexico,  Citv  of,  240. 
Mexico,  Mountain  Peaks  of,  29,  241,  823. 
Mexico,  Natives  of,  239. 
Miehitran,  An;ric\dtural  Prodncta  of,  121. 
Middle  States,  Afrricnltural  Products,  121. 
Middle  States,  Climate  of,  172,  isi. 
Military   Posts  and   Cities,  133,  141,  150, 

lOO. 
Milwaukee,  Mean  Temperature  of,  188. 
Minnesota,  Afrrieulture,  &c.,  194. 
Minnesota,  As^ricultural  Products  of,  121. 
Minnesota,  Climate,  etc.,  137,  189. 
Mira^re  on  Lake  Superior,  99. 
Jlississippi,  Afrricultural  Products  of,  122. 
Mississippi  liiver  and  Valley,  190. 
Missouri,  Acrricultural  Products,  121,  199. 
Missouri  Kiver,  139. 
Montana,  Its  Climate,  itc,  114,  23G, 
Jlonteroy,  California,  157. 
Montlily  Temperatures,  208,  209. 
Montreal,  Climatic  Observations,  73,  81. 
Montreal,  Island  of,  82. 
Mountain  Peaks,  23,  29,  241,  317,  823. 
Mountain  and  Kiver  Systems,  25. 
Mountains  of  Mexico,  241. 
^lountain  System  of  the  Andes,  319. 
Mount  Ilood,  Orctron,  149. 
Mount  St.  Elias,  Kussian  America,  28,  41, 

N 
Nebrii'-.ka,  Apricnltural  Products  of,  221. 
Kc'v  Caledonia,  British  America,  44. 
New  Brunswick,  Climate  of,  78. 
New  Eufrland  St;'.tes,  Climate  of,  172. 
Newfoundland,  Climate  of,  (54. 
New  Granaila,  or  Colombia,  282. 
New  Hampshire,  Agricultural  Products  of, 

121. 
Now  Jt^rsoy,  Ajrricultural  Products  of,  121. 
New  Mexico,  Climate  of,  214. 
Ne^v  Orleans.  Temperature  of,  164,  216. 
New  World,  Hottest  Portion  of,  22. 


New  York,  Airrionltural  Products  of,  121. 

New  York,  Climate  of,  177. 

New  York,  Meteorologiciil  Obsorvntions  in, 

176. 
Nnrtblk,  Viri.'inia.  152. 
.North  .\mcriea,  ('limate  of,  19. 
North  America,  Forests  and  Prairies,  101. 
North  America,  Great.  Kivers  and  Basins 

of,  28. 
North  America,  T.ake  I'ccrion  of,  93. 
North  .Vmcrica,  Mountains  and  Hivcrs,  25. 
North  America,  Temperature  of,  is. 
North  America,  Zones  of  T'enipcrature,  20. 
North  Carolina,  Atrricnltur.d  I'roilucts,  122. 
Northern  Limits  of  ('dtton-trrowinir,  199. 
Northern  Pacitle  liailroad  Koule,  23C, 
Northern  States,  Climate  of,  172. 
Northers,  the,  212. 

North  Pole,  Appearance  of  the  Siui,  34. 
North-western  States,  109,  186. 
Norway  House,  British  America,  47,  49,  52. 
Nova  i^cotia,  Climate  of,  78. 

() 

Ohio,  Agricultural  Products  of,  121,  183. 

Okak,  Labrador,  fio. 

Omaliii  City,  Nebraska.  1^7. 

( )reiron,  Agriculfral  Products, itc, 121. 147. 

Crcjron  and  Wnshintrton  Territory,  220. 

Oriaiba,  Ascent  of,  ;!23. 

Ozark  Mountains,  210. 


Pacific  Coast,  W.ashington  Territory,  231. 

Pacific  States  an<l  Territories,  120,  215. 

Pacitie  Kailroad  lioutc,  236. 

Pampas  and  Llanos  of  South  America,  314. 

Panama,  Isthmus  of,  251,  281. 

Para,  Temperature  of,  28". 

Paraguay,  Its  Climate,  etc.,  312. 

Pass  over  the  Pocky  Mountains,  53. 

Patagonia,  Its  Climate,  etc.,  321. 

Patagonia,  Moinitains  of,  319. 

Pennsylvania,  Airriculturul  Products,  121. 

Pennsylvania,  Climate  of,  181. 

Peru,  Its  Climate,  etc.,  311. 

Philadelphia,  Temperature  of,  131. 

Plattsburgli  Barracks,  New  York,  133. 

Polar  Sea,  80.    _ 

Population  and  ucaths  in  Canada,  63. 

Population  of  Mexico.  239. 

Population  of  the  Umted  States,  118. 

Porto  Kico,  Its  Climate,  etc,  204. 

Potiitoes,  24. 

Potosi,  Bolivia,  311. 

Prairie  Region,  104,  316. 

Prairies  of  North  America,  101. 

Q 

Quebec,  Climate  of,  71. 

liucbec,  Mean  Temperature  of,  82. 

li 

Kain,  Fall  of,  in  Havana,  271. 
Pain  in  the  I.ahamas,  272. 
Kain,  Measu  •cnieiit  of,  is,  168. 
Kain,  Monti  Iv  Fall  of,  223. 


liicts  of,  121. 
iservations  in, 

9. 

I'rairies,  101. 

!«  and  lia-siiis 

of,  W. 

Ill  Kivcrs,  25. 
of,  IS. 
i|irnitiiro,  20, 

'l-n,luCtH,   lliJ. 

•owiiii:,  lyy. 
uic,  liac, 

17--'. 

le  8iin,  ;j4. 

ica,  47,  40,  52. 


of.  121,  183. 


sAc.,121,147. 
litory,  '2M. 


n-itorv,  231. 

,  I'JO,  I'l"). 

America,  C14. 


12. 

iifi,  55. 
iiil. 

roducts,  121. 


'ork,  135. 

lada,  63. 

:ei<,  118. 
i04. 


n:DEX. 


333 


1. 


f,  82. 


Hain,  Natural  Influences,  17. 

llaiii  in  Saoranidito  City,  California,  22n. 

llaiii  in  tlio  United  .States,  1-JS,  li)8. 

IJaiii  in  West  Virm'inia,  I'Ji. 

Kainv  I.:il<e,  50. 

Hod  kiver  <.f  the  North.  51'.,  101. 

Itfd  lliver  Sftllemoiit,  i"! . 

lleinurkahle  I'liciioini'iia    ','^. 

IJmisseluer  Ilarhur,  Ore -'I'.land,  37. 

Itliode  Island,  A<,'rii.u!ti!-  .i  1'rodin.ts,  121. 

];iec  Culture,  Lo;;,  'JOI. 

Kio  Janeiro,  IJnizil,  :iii7. 

Kio  de  La  riata,  •.',\i>. 

liivas,   Niearai;ua,  -'47. 

lliver,  l)a>ins  and  Valleys,  28. 

lioehestcr,  New  York, 'l'ciui>crature  of,  ISO. 

lioeky  Mountains,  -Jii,  \i'M. 

Hoeky  .Mountains,  Climate,  Snow,  «S:c.,  233. 

Kneky  Moinitains,  I'assses  over  tlie,  55. 

Ivussian  .\nu'riea.  41. 

Ku>so-Anierieun  Telegraph  Expedition,  43. 

S 
Sacramento  City,  California,  'J25. 
Savannali,  (iei.'ri;ia.  Climate  of,  'JOJ. 
St.  .Anthony,  .Miiuiesota,  111. 
St.  AuiTusline,  Florida,  103. 
St.  l)oiiiin>.'o,  ClinuUe  ot',  :i7i!. 
St.  .lolin.  New  Krunswiek,  8-j. 
St.  John,  Newfoundland,  (So. 
St.  l.aurenee  Itiver,  73,  05. 
St.  Louir.  Arsenal,  Missouri,  153. 
St.  I'aul,  Minnesota,  l[". 
San  l)iej;o,  Calilbrnia,  107. 
San  Jose  Valley,  (.'alilornia,  222. 
San  Salvador,  Central  Ameriea,  245. 
Saskatchewan,  Valley  of  the,  40,  55. 
Scenery  and  Climate'of  \Vasliinj,'ton  Terri- 

torVj  -j-js. 
Seasons  ni  California,  223. 
Seasons  in  the  State  of  New  York,  170. 
Season^  in  the  \'alley  of  Lake  AVinnepej,',  53. 
Seasons,  Temneraturc  of,  "^07. 
Sickness  and  Nlortality  in  tlie  United  States 

Army,  171. 
Sierra  Nevada  of  ('alifori..     2:i5. 
Sitka,  IJussian  America,  4'J. 
South  America,  Climate  01',  '^4,  277. 

Soilih  AiTieriea,  Cliiiiatio  .OivisiOil  of,  270. 

South  Carolina,  Affrieultural  Troduets,  122. 

Soutli  Carolina,  Clinuite  ot',  liio. 

So'ilhern  States,  Airricult'rul  l'roducts,122. 

Southern  States,  Climate  of,  105. 

South  I'ass  and  Fremont's  Peak,  234. 

Siuitli-western  States,  Climate  of,  \ih). 

Straits  of  l!i'llc-I>le,  (",3. 

Straits  of  Mairellan,  321. 

Suh-Tropii'al  Climate,  lio". 

Sub-Troj.ieal  States,  lii4. 

Su^rar  Cane,  Culture  of,  :J57,  259,  202. 

Sullivan's  Island,  South  Curoliiui,  10-'. 

Stnnnier  Ti'mperature,  53. 

Sunnner  and  Wiiiter  Tenii>erature,  38. 


Temncrate  and  (.'old  Zones  of  South  Amer- 
ica, 314. 


Temperate  Zoncsi,  15,  280,  32?. 
Temperature,  Anmiul  Mean,  18,  300. 
Temperature  of  JJritisli  America,  tiC>. 
Temperature  of  Central  Amoiica,  l'47,  253. 
Temperature  of  llaliliix  and  St.  John,  83. 
Teniperaluro  of  lluilsou  l!ay,  40. 
Temperature  of  Mexico,  i!41. 
Temperature  of  Montreal  und  Queboo,  75, 

h-_'. 
Temperature  of  North  America,  15. 
'femperaturo  of  Kussian  Amcric,  08. 
Tem]>erature  of  South  America,  "JSO, 
Temperature  of  the  Atlantic  (Jeean,  27'J. 
Temperature  of  the  Arctic  Sea,  30. 
Temperature  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 

14. 
Temperature  of  the  Ued  Kivcr  Settlement, 

57. 
Temperature  of  the  Seasons,  207. 
Temiierature  of  the  United  States,  115, 123. 
Temjieraturo  of  the  Uiij>er  Lakes,  00. 
Temperature  of  West  \  irf,'inia,  107. 
Temperature  within  the  -Arctic  Circle,  37. 
Tennessee,  Au'ricultural  I'roducts  of,  122. 
Texas,  Airricultural  I'roduetb  of,  V^2. 
Texas,  Cllnuite  of,  210. 
Tierra  del  Fuefro,  322. 
Timher,  lirazilian,  304. 
Titieaca,  Lake  of,  311. 
Tobacco,  Culture  of,  109,  2n0. 
Toronto,  Canada,  Indian  Summer,  81. 
Toronto, ( 'anada,  .Meteorolo^'ical  Kesults,  85, 
Torrid  /one,  15,  279. 
Ti'ade  Winds,  207,  318. 
Tropical  America,  Temperature  of,  253. 

U 
United  States,   Agricultural  Product.s  oil 

117,  121. 
United  States,  Area  and  Population,  113. 
United  States,  C'limate  of,  12,  115. 
United  Stites,  Climai' '  Boi'.iulary,  115. 
United  States,  Climaue  Division,  122. 
United  State.*,  Deaths  in  the,  127. 
United  States  Kxplorin;;  Expedition,  327. 
United  Stati  s,  Uain  in  the,  128. 
Ui)per  and  Lower  Canada,  07. 
Upper,  or  Western  Canada,  00. 
!•,  .....  I  ..i-oj    i.'vt..i,t  t.r  <iA 

Upper  ].,akes,  Tem[)eraturo  ot",  90. 
Utah,  Airricultural  Products  of,  l2l. 
Utah,  Climate  of,  141. 


Valley  of  the  Amazon,  204,  297,  305. 

Valley  of  Mexico,  243. 

Valley  of  tiio  Missis>ii>i)i,  100. 

Valley  of  the  Orinoco,  2s4. 

\'aneiiMver's  Island,  Climate  of,  88,  238. 

Vegciahle  Kinqfilom  of  America,  105. 

\'ci."'talilcs  in  Cuba,  202. 

Vegetation  of  llrazil,  2sS. 

\'cgetation  of  Ecuador,  ;joO. 

W'gctation  of  the  West  India  Islands,  250. 

X'enezuela,  t^limate  of,  2-^3. 

\'ermont,  .•Vgricult\iral  Products  of,  121. 

Victoria,  Vancouver's  Island,  80. 


1 


IN 


l',ir 


8   -t  '■ 

X 


3?'^l!il 


w  n 


334  INDEX. 


Virjt'min,  Affricultnrnl  ProJucta  of,  121. 
Virginia,  VuHoy  of,  ll»7. 

W 

■WnsliiiiKtoii  Territorj',  121,  228. 

^VllHll!l'•^tou  Tcirritory,  CMimate,  &c.,  228. 

^Vusllil)^'toll  Territory,  Mcteorologicul  Ta- 
ble, 230. 

Waters  of  Luke  Superior,  05. 

AVestern  New  York,  178. 

Western  States,  Cliinnto  of,  172,  182. 

West  Iiulia  Iflandu,  2.")4,  y70. 

West  Iiuliu  Itslaudn,  Uealtli,  WiiiJs,  &c., 
2.">:). 

West  I'oiiit,  New  York,  143. 

West  Virginia,  C'litnulc  of,  100. 

West  Virginia,  Uaiii  full  in,  1118. 

AVIieat,  23,  125,  310. 

AVliere  to  Einif;rate  in  South  America,  310. 

White  Mountuins,  27,  2'.t. 

Windft  in  the  Northwest  Territory,  54. 


Wind  River  Mountjiin,  234. 

Winds  in  South  Anicrico,  287,  814. 

Winnepeg  Lake,  62. 

AViHcoiiiiin,  Ajrrieiiltural  Producta  of,  121. 

Wood  and  Timber  of  Hrazil,  204. 

Woods  in  North  America,  lol. 


Yellow  Fever,  105,  252,  284. 
Yellow  Fever  in  Havana,  204. 
York  Factory,  Iiriti»h  America,  40. 

Z 

Zones,  or  Melts  of  Temperature,  15,  279. 

Zones,  ('liinatic,  20. 

Zones,  Cold  and  Friu'id,  20,  281. 

Zones,  ('(^Id  and  Temjierate,  315. 

Zones,  Frigid,  15. 

Zones  of  Temjierature,  25. 

Zones,  Temperate,  15,  20. 

Zones,  TroiJical  or  Torrid,  15,  21,  279. 


mmm^ 


fi,  234. 

iricu,  287,  314. 

rill  Producta  of,  121. 
Hnizil,  204. 
irica,  lul. 

{ 

i2,  284. 

una,  204. 

L  Americn,  4G. 

inpcrftturc,  15,  279. 

id,  20,  281. 
lierate,  315. 

■e,  25. 

i,  20. 

)rrid,  15,  21,  279. 


i 


.] 


